Bactericidal and synergistic effects of X-ray irradiation and gallic acid against foodborne pathogens on lettuce

Electromagnetic wave-based technology for ready-to-eat foods preservation: a review of applications, challenges and prospects

In recent years, the ready-to-eat foods market has grown significantly due to its high nutritional value and convenience. However, these foods are also at risk of microbial contamination, which poses food safety hazards. Additionally, traditional high-temperature sterilization methods can cause food safety and nutritional health problems such as protein denaturation and lipid oxidation. Therefore, exploring and developing effective sterilization technologies is imperative to ensure food safety and nutritional properties, and protect consumers from potential foodborne diseases. This paper focuses on electromagnetic wave-based pasteurization technologies, including thermal processing technologies such as microwave, radio frequency, and infrared, as well as non-thermal processing technologies like ultraviolet, irradiation, pulsed light, and photodynamic inactivation. Furthermore, it also reviews the antibacterial mechanisms, advantages, disadvantages, and recent applications of these technologies in ready-to-eat foods, and summarizes their limitations and prospects. By comparing the limitations of traditional high-temperature sterilization methods, this paper highlights the significant advantages of these pasteurization techniques in effectively inhibiting microbial growth, slowing lipid oxidation, and preserving food nutrition and flavor. This review may contribute to the industrial application and process optimization of these pasteurization technologies, providing an optimal choice for preserving various types of ready-to-eat foods.

The synergistic bactericidal effect of simultaneous 222 nm krypton-chlorine excilamp and 307 nm UVB light treatment on sliced cheese and its mechanisms

In this study, we investigated the combined effect of 222 nm krypton-chlorine excilamp (EX) and 307 nm ultraviolet-B (UVB) light on the inactivation of Salmonella Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes on sliced cheese. The data confirmed that simultaneous exposure to EX and UVB irradiation for 80 s reduced S. Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes population by 3.50 and 3.20 log CFU/g, respectively, on sliced cheese. The synergistic cell count reductions in S. Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes in the combined treatment group were 0.88 and 0.59 log units, respectively. The inactivation mechanism underlying the EX and UVB combination treatment was evaluated using fluorescent staining. The combination of EX and UVB light induced the inactivation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) defense enzymes (superoxide dismutase) and synergistic ROS generation, resulting in synergistic lipid peroxidation and destruction of the cell membrane. There were no significant (P > 0.05) differences in the color, texture, or sensory attributes of sliced cheese between the combination treatment and control groups. These results demonstrate that combined treatment with EX and UVB light is a potential alternative strategy for inactivating foodborne pathogens in dairy products without affecting their quality.

X-rays irradiation maintains redox homeostasis and regulates energy metabolism of fresh figs (Ficus carica L. Siluhongyu)

In this study, figs were irradiated with X-rays doses of 1.0, 3.0, and 5.0 kGy and stored at 4 °C for 20 d to evaluate effects of X-ray on redox homeostasis and energy metabolism in figs. Non-irradiated figs were recorded as control group. Results indicated that 3.0 kGy X-rays delayed fig color discoloration by inhibiting the ΔE* values. The electrolyte leakage, MDA and O2-· levels of figs were significantly alleviated. Energy metabolism assay revealed that 3.0 kGy X-rays could significantly maintain higher activities of H+-ATPase, Ca2+-ATPase, SDH, CCO, G6PDH and 6PGDH of figs. 3.0 kGy X-rays also retained mitochondria membrane integrity of figs. Furthermore, 3.0 kGy X-rays resulted in 26.09 % higher NADK activity and 16.30 % lower NADH content than the control. The study proves that X-ray irradiation can be used as figs preservation means to maintain redox homeostasis and regulate energy metabolism, thus lengthening the shelf life of figs.

Modeling the γ-irradiation inactivation kinetics of foodborne pathogens Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus in instant soup

The objective of the present study was to assess the inactivation kinetics of γ-irradiation of selected foodborne pathogens in instant soup. Escherichia coli O157:H7 (ATCC 25922), Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Enteritidis (ATCC 13076), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 2592), and Bacillus cereus (ATCC 11778) were inoculated into instant soup and irradiated at various doses of 0 (control), 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, and 10.0 kGy using 60Co source. The radiation response of these four major foodborne disease pathogens in instant soup was tested. As expected, the pathogen population decreased with increasing irradiation dose. By comparing bacterial resistance in instant soups according to D10 values, E coli O157: H7 was the most radio-resistant bacteria (D10 of 1.580 kGy), followed by Salmonella (D10 of 1.160 kGy), S aureus (D10 of 0.775 kGy), B cereus (D10 of 0.462 kGy). For modeling of inactivation kinetics, both, the conventional first-order linear model and Weibull model were compared and the goodness of fit of these models was investigated. Weibull model produced a better fit to the data. This research has shown that γ-irradiation was effective to eliminate pathogens in instant soup and it can be a great way to assure the microbiological safety of the instant soup.

Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes on stainless steel by synergistic effects of tap water-based neutral electrolyzed water and lactic acid

Contaminated food contact surface is one of the most important transmission routes for foodborne pathogens. Stainless steel is one such food-contact surface that is widely used in food-processing environments. The present study aimed to evaluate the synergistic antimicrobial efficacy of a combination of tap water-based neutral electrolyzed water (TNEW) and lactic acid (LA) against the foodborne pathogens Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes on stainless steel. The results revealed that simultaneous treatment with TNEW (ACC of 4.60 mg/L) and 0.1% LA (TNEW-LA) for 5 min resulted in 4.99-, 4.34-, and >5.4- log CFU/cm² reductions in E. coli O157:H7, S. Typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes on stainless steel, respectively. Of these, 4.00-, 3.57-, and >4.76-log CFU/cm² reductions in E. coli O157:H7, S. Typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes, respectively were exclusively attributed to the synergistic action of the combined treatments after factoring out the reductions due to individual treatments. Furthermore, five mechanistic investigations revealed that the key mechanisms underlying the synergistic antibacterial effect of TNEW-LA were reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, cell membrane damage resulting from membrane lipid oxidation, DNA damage, and inactivation of intracellular enzymes. Overall, our findings suggest that the TNEW-LA combination treatment could be effectively used in the sanitization of food processing environments, especially the food contact surfaces, to control major pathogens and enhance food safety.

Antibacterial Activity and Possible Mechanism of Litsea cubeba Essential Oil Against Shigella sonnei and Its Application in Lettuce

Shigella sonnei, the causative agents of bacillary dysentery, remains a significant threat to public health. Litsea cubeba essential oil (LC-EO), one of the natural essential oils, exhibited promising biological activities. In this study, the antibacterial effects and possible mechanisms of LC-EO on S. sonnei and its application in lettuce medium were investigated. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of LC-EO against S. sonnei ATCC 25931 and CMCC 51592 was 4 and 6 μL/mL, respectively. The LC-EO could inhibit the growth of S. sonnei, and decreased S. sonnei to undetectable levels with 4 μL/mL for 1 h in Luria-Bertani broth. The antibacterial mechanism indicated that after the treatment of LC-EO, the production of reactive oxygen species and the activity of superoxide dismutase were significantly elevated in S. sonnei cells, and eventually led to the lipid oxidation product, the malondialdehyde content that significantly increased. Moreover, LC-EO at 2 MIC could destroy 96.51% of bacterial cell membrane integrity, and made S. sonnei cells to appear wrinkled with a rough surface, so that the intracellular adenosine triphosphate leakage was about 0.352-0.030 μmol/L. Finally, the results of application evaluation indicated that the addition of LC-EO at 4 μL/mL in lettuce leaves and 6 μL/mL in lettuce juice could decrease the number of S. sonnei to undetectable levels without remarkable influence on the lettuce leaf sensory quality. In summary, LC-EO exerted strong antibacterial activity and has the potential to control S. sonnei in food industry.

Antibacterial Activity of Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG) against Shigella flexneri

Shigella flexneri (S. flexneri), a major intestinal pathogen, is a global public health concern. The biofilms formed by S. flexneri threaten environmental safety, since they could promote the danger of environmental contamination and strengthen the disease-causing properties of bacteria. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is an important catechin in tea, which has a high antibacterial activity. However, its antibacterial mechanism is still unclear. This research aims to quantify the antibacterial function and investigate the possible mechanism of EGCG inhibition of S. flexneri. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of EGCG against planktonic S. flexneri in the investigation was measured to be 400 μg/mL. Besides, SDS-PAGE and field emission scanning electron microscopy showed that EGCG interfered with protein synthesis and changed bacteria morphology. Through controlling the expression of the mdoH gene, EGCG was found to be able to prevent an S. flexneri biofilm extracellular polysaccharide from forming, according to experiments utilizing the real-time PCR test. Additional research revealed that EGCG might stimulate the response of S. flexneri to oxidative stress and prevent bacterial growth. These findings suggest that EGCG, a natural compound, may play a substantial role in S. flexneri growth inhibition.

Impact of irradiation on physico-chemical and nutritional properties of fruits and vegetables: A mini review

Background

Fruits and vegetables are healthy because they contain good nutrients and secondary metabolites that keep the body healthy and disease-free. Post-harvest losses of fresh fruits and vegetables limit access and availability as a result of foodborne infections and poor storage technologies. The selection of fruits and vegetables depend on the starting microbial load, the size of fruits and vegetables, and the type of infrastructure.

Scope and approach

Despite the positive impacts of conventional thermal (roasting, boiling, blanching) and some non-thermal processing techniques such as High Pressure Processing (HPP), Pulse Electric Field (PEF), Cold Plasma Technology (CPT) on shelf-life extension, their use is commonly associated with a number of negative consequences on product quality such as cold plasma treatment increases the acidity and rate of lipid oxidation and further decrease the colour intensity and firmness of products. Similarly, in high pressure processing and pulse electric field there is no spore inactivation and they further limit their application to semi-moist and liquid foods. On that account, food irradiation, a non-thermal technique, is currently being used for post-harvest preservation, which could be very useful in retaining the keeping quality of various fresh and dehydrated products without negatively affecting their versatility and physico-chemical, nutritional and sensory properties.

Conclusion

Existing studies have communicated the effective influence of irradiation technology on nutritional, sensory, and physico-chemical properties of multiple fruits and vegetables accompanying consequential deduction in microbial load throughout the storage period. Food irradiation can be recognized as a prevalent, safe and promising technology however, still is not fully exploited on a magnified scale. The consumer acceptance of processed products has always been a significant challenge for innovative food processing technologies such as food irradiation. Therefore, owing to current review, additional scientific evidences and efforts are still demanded for increasing its technological request.

Antibacterial Effect of Eugenol on Shigella flexneri and Its Mechanism

Shigella flexneri (Sh. flexneri), which can be found in food and the environment, is a widespread food-borne pathogen that causes human diarrhea termed “shigellosis”. In this study, eugenol, a natural active substance, was investigated for its antibacterial activity against Sh. flexneri. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of eugenol against Sh. flexneri ATCC 12022 was 0.5 and 0.8 mg/mL. The growth curves and inhibitory effect in LB broth, PBS, vegetable juice, and minced pork showed that eugenol had a good activity against Sh. flexneri. Research findings indicated the superoxide dismutase activity of Sh. flexneri was inhibited after eugenol treatment, resulting in concentrations of intracellular reactive oxygen species and an increase in malondialdehyde. The flow cytometry analysis and field emission scanning electron microscopy results revealed obvious damage to cell membrane integrity and changes in the morphology of Sh. flexneri. In addition, the intracellular ATP concentration leaked from 0.5 μM to below 0.05 μM and the membrane potential showed a concentration-dependent depolarization after eugenol treatment. In summary, eugenol exerted strong antibacterial activity and has the potential to control Sh. flexneri in the food industry.

The Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activity of Oregano Essential Oil against Enterococcus faecalis and Its Application in Chicken Breast

Oregano essential oil (OEO) possesses anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cancer-suppressive properties. Enterococcus faecalis is a foodborne opportunistic pathogen that can be found in nature and the food processing industry. The goal of this investigation was to explore the antimicrobial action and mechanism of OEO against E. faecalis, inactivation action of OEO on E. faecalis in mature biofilms, and its application in chicken breast. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of OEO against E. faecalis strains (ATCC 29212 and nine isolates) ranged from 0.25 to 0.50 μL/mL. OEO therapy reduced intracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels, caused cell membrane hyperpolarization, increased the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and elevated extracellular malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations. Furthermore, OEO treatment diminished cell membrane integrity and caused morphological alterations in the cells. In biofilms on stainless-steel, OEO showed effective inactivation activity against E. faecalis. OEO reduced the number of viable cells, cell viability and exopolysaccharides in the biofilm, as well as destroying its structure. Application of OEO on chicken breast results in a considerable reduction in E. faecalis counts and pH values, in comparison to control samples. These findings suggest that OEO could be utilized as a natural antibacterial preservative and could effectively control E. faecalis in food manufacturing.

Antimicrobial Activity and Action Mechanism of Thymoquinone against Bacillus cereus and Its Spores

In this study, thymoquinone (TQ), a natural active substance, was investigated for its antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus, and its inhibitory effect on B. cereus in reconstituted infant formula (RIF) was evaluated. In addition, the inhibitory effect of TQ on B. cereus spore germination was explored. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) of TQ against eight B. cereus strains ranged from 4.0 to 8.0 μg/mL, whereas B. cereus treated with TQ displayed a longer lag phase than the untreated control. TQ exerted a good bactericidal effect on B. cereus in Luria–Bertani broth. In addition, TQ obviously reduced the intracellular ATP concentration of B. cereus, which caused depolarization of the cell membrane, increased the intracellular reactive oxygen species level, impaired the cell morphology, and destroyed proteins or inhibited proteins synthesis. This provides a mechanism for its bacteriostatic effect. TQ also inactivated B. cereus growth in RIF. Moreover, reverse transcription–quantitative polymerase chain reaction illustrated that TQ downregulated the transcription of genes related to hemolysin, non-hemolytic enterotoxin, enterotoxin, and cytotoxin K. Meanwhile, TQ displayed the ability to inhibit the germination of B. cereus spores. These findings indicate that TQ, as an effective natural antimicrobial preservative, has potential applications in controlling food contamination and foodborne diseases caused by B. cereus.

Synergistic interaction of tap water-based neutral electrolyzed water combined with UVA irradiation to enhance microbial inactivation on stainless steel

As an emerging electrolyzed water (EW) technology, tap water-based neutral electrolyzed water (TNEW) is an attractive alternative to other types of conventional EW for sterilization of food contact surfaces. In this study, we sought to identify strategies for improving TNEW inactivation efficiencies of major foodborne pathogenic bacteria. We investigated the synergistic antimicrobial effect of TNEW and ultraviolet-A light (UVA) combination treatment against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes on stainless steel. The data confirmed that simultaneous TNEW and UVA treatment for 60 min reduced E. coli O157:H7, S. Typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes population by 2.15, 1.55, and 2.65 log CFU/cm², respectively. The synergistic cell count reductions in E. coli O157:H7, S. Typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes in the combination treatment group were 1.17, 0.59, and 1.62 log units, respectively. Additionally, the mechanisms of the synergistic bactericidal effects of TNEW and UVA were identified through several approaches. Mechanistic investigations suggested that the synergistic effect was associated with intracellular reactive oxygen species generation, bacterial cell membrane damage, and inactivation of dehydrogenase. These findings demonstrate that treatment with TNEW and UVA light can enhance the microbiological safety of food contact surfaces during food processing.

Characterization and Genome Study of Novel Lytic Bacteriophages against Prevailing Saprophytic Bacterial Microflora of Minimally Processed Plant-Based Food Products

The food industry is still searching for novel solutions to effectively ensure the microbiological safety of food, especially fresh and minimally processed food products. Nowadays, the use of bacteriophages as potential biological control agents in microbiological food safety and preservation is a promising strategy. The aim of the study was the isolation and comprehensive characterization of novel bacteriophages with lytic activity against saprophytic bacterial microflora of minimally processed plant-based food products, such as mixed leaf salads. From 43 phages isolated from municipal sewage, four phages, namely Enterobacter phage KKP 3263, Citrobacter phage KKP 3664, Enterobacter phage KKP 3262, and Serratia phage KKP 3264 have lytic activity against Enterobacter ludwigii KKP 3083, Citrobacter freundii KKP 3655, Enterobacter cloacae KKP 3082, and Serratia fonticola KKP 3084 bacterial strains, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) identified Enterobacter phage KKP 3263 as an Autographiviridae, and Citrobacter phage KKP 3664, Enterobacter phage KKP 3262, and Serratia phage KKP 3264 as members of the Myoviridae family. Genome sequencing revealed that these phages have linear double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) with sizes of 39,418 bp (KKP 3263), 61,608 bp (KKP 3664), 84,075 bp (KKP 3262), and 148,182 bp (KKP 3264). No antibiotic resistance genes, virulence factors, integrase, recombinase, or repressors, which are the main markers of lysogenic viruses, were annotated in phage genomes. Serratia phage KKP 3264 showed the greatest growth inhibition of Serratia fonticola KKP 3084 strain. The use of MOI 1.0 caused an almost 5-fold decrease in the value of the specific growth rate coefficient. The phages retained their lytic activity in a wide range of temperatures (from -20 °C to 50 °C) and active acidity values (pH from 4 to 11). All phages retained at least 70% of lytic activity at 60 °C. At 80 °C, no lytic activity against tested bacterial strains was observed. Serratia phage KKP 3264 was the most resistant to chemical factors, by maintaining high lytic activity across a broader range of pH from 3 to 11. The results indicated that these phages could be a potential biological control agent against saprophytic bacterial microflora of minimally processed plant-based food products.

Vanillic acid combats Vibrio alginolyticus by cell membrane damage and biofilm reduction

Antibiotics are the most powerful weapon against bacterial infectious diseases in aquaculture. However, the indiscriminate usage of antibiotics often culminates in the emerging development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, making it imperative to search for novel types of antimicrobial agents. This study investigated the antibacterial and antivirulence effects of vanillic acid (VA) against the fish pathogen, Vibrio alginolyticus. We showed that VA had a good anti-Vibrio activity with minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 1.0 mg/ml. In addition, VA wielded its antibacterial action in a dose-/time-dependent manner by causing cell membrane damage and increasing membrane permeability, which is evidenced by increasing the conductivity and malondialdehyde content in the treated cell cultures and the scanning electron microscopy images. Furthermore, VA significantly reduced the biofilm-forming capability, mobility and exotoxin production (protease and exopolysaccharide) and downregulation of the expression of biofilm- and virulence-associated genes (sypG, fliS, fliK, lafA, lafK, asp and luxR) was seen in the V. alginolyticus that exposed to VA at subinhibitory concentrations. Overall, our findings suggested that VA may be of interest for treating V. alginolyticus-associated infections in aquaculture.

Growth temperature influences the resistance of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium on lettuce to X-ray irradiation

This study aimed to investigate the effect of different growth temperatures on the resistance of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium to low-energy X-ray irradiation. Irradiation of contaminated phosphate-buffered saline with 0.6 kGy X-ray decreased the counts of E. coli O157:H7 cultured at 37 °C to below the detection limit (<1.0 colony-forming unit (CFU)/mL) and those of E. coli O157:H7 cultured at 25 and 15 °C by 4.82 and 4.45 log CFU/mL, respectively. The viable counts of S. Typhimurium cultured at 37, 25, and 15 °C in phosphate-buffered saline decreased by 3.56, 3.08, and 2.75 log CFU/mL, respectively, after irradiation with 0.6 kGy X-ray. Irradiation of contaminated lettuce with 0.4 kGy decreased the counts of E. coli O157:H7 cultured at 37, 25, and 15 °C by 3.97, 3.45, and 3.10 log CFU/cm2, respectively, and those of S. Typhimurium by 4.41, 3.84, and 3.40 log CFU/cm2, respectively. Growth temperature influenced pathogen resistance to X-ray irradiation by modulating cellular membrane and DNA integrity, intracellular enzyme activity, and efflux pump function. The results of this study suggest that the stress resistance status of pathogenic bacteria cultured at different growth temperatures should be considered for the application of X-ray irradiation for fresh produce sterilization.