1
|
Mao M, Zhang Z, Zhao X, Geng H, Xue L, Liu D. Spatial Distribution and Enrichment Dynamics of Foodborne Norovirus in Oyster Tissues. Foods 2023; 13:128. [PMID: 38201156 PMCID: PMC10778453 DOI: 10.3390/foods13010128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of norovirus in oysters poses a significant threat to food safety, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of contamination patterns. This study explores the temporal dynamics of norovirus distribution in various oyster tissues over a contamination period ranging from 6 to 96 h. Four tissues-the gill, palp, digestive gland, and stomach-were subjected to systematic monitoring using RT-qPCR for absolute quantification. Results revealed rapid norovirus detection in all tissues six hours post-contamination, with subsequent variations in detection rates. Gill and digestive gland tissues exhibited a peak in detection at 12-24 h, aligning with the oyster's gastrointestinal circulatory system. The digestive gland, distinguished by specific enrichment and adsorption capabilities, demonstrated the highest virus concentration at 48 h. In contrast, the stomach displayed a reemergence of norovirus. Beyond 72 h, detection remained exclusive to the digestive gland, with Ct values comparable to earlier time points. At 96 h, a limited amount of norovirus was detected in the digestive gland, emphasizing the importance for timely monitoring. In addition to providing critical insights into optimal detection strategies, these findings highlight the time-related characteristics of norovirus contamination in oysters. The study identifies the digestive gland as a key target for reliable monitoring, providing valuable data to improve protocols for reducing hazards associated with oyster consumption and foodborne norovirus infections. This research contributes to the understanding of norovirus dynamics in oyster tissues and reinforces current efforts aimed at ensuring food safety and public health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mao Mao
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (M.M.); (Z.Z.)
- Shanghai International Travel Healthcare Center, Shanghai Customs District P. R. China, Shanghai 200335, China
| | - Zilei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (M.M.); (Z.Z.)
- Inspection and Quarantine Technology Communication Department, Shanghai Customs College, Shanghai 201204, China
| | - Xuchong Zhao
- Jinan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Jinan 250021, China;
| | - Haoran Geng
- Shanghai-MOST Key Laboratory of Health and Disease Genomics, NHC Key Lab of Reproduction Regulation, Shanghai Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technologies, Fudan University, Shanghai 200237, China;
| | - Liang Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (M.M.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Danlei Liu
- Shanghai International Travel Healthcare Center, Shanghai Customs District P. R. China, Shanghai 200335, China
- Shanghai-MOST Key Laboratory of Health and Disease Genomics, NHC Key Lab of Reproduction Regulation, Shanghai Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technologies, Fudan University, Shanghai 200237, China;
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yu JR, Xie DJ, Li JH, Koroma MM, Wang L, Wang Y, Jing DN, Xu JY, Yu JX, Du HS, Zhou FY, Liang ZY, Zhang XF, Dai YC. Serological surveillance of GI norovirus reveals persistence of blockade antibody in a Jidong community-based prospective cohort, 2014-2018. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1258550. [PMID: 38188632 PMCID: PMC10766831 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1258550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Herd immunity against norovirus (NoV) is poorly understood in terms of its serological properties and vaccine designs. The precise neutralizing serological features of genotype I (GI) NoV have not been studied. Methods To expand insights on vaccine design and herd immunity of NoVs, seroprevalence and seroincidence of NoV genotypes GI.2, GI.3, and GI.9 were determined using blockade antibodies based on a 5-year longitudinal serosurveillance among 449 residents in Jidong community. Results Correlation between human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and GI NoV, and dynamic and persistency of antibodies were also analyzed. Seroprevalence of GI.2, GI.3, and GI.9 NoV were 15.1%-18.0%, 35.0%-38.8%, and 17.6%-22.0%; seroincidences were 10.0, 21.0, and 11.0 per 100.0 person-year from 2014 to 2018, respectively. Blockade antibodies positive to GI.2 and GI.3 NoV were significantly associated with HBGA phenotypes, including blood types A, B (excluding GI.3), and O+; Lewis phenotypes Leb+/Ley+ and Lea+b+/Lex+y+; and secretors. The overall decay rate of anti-GI.2 antibody was -5.9%/year (95% CI: -7.1% to -4.8%/year), which was significantly faster than that of GI.3 [-3.6%/year (95% CI: -4.6% to -2.6%/year)] and GI.9 strains [-4.0%/year (95% CI: -4.7% to -3.3%/year)]. The duration of anti-GI.2, GI.3, and GI.9 NoV antibodies estimated by generalized linear model (GLM) was approximately 2.3, 4.2, and 4.8 years, respectively. Discussion In conclusion, enhanced community surveillance of GI NoV is needed, and even one-shot vaccine may provide coast-efficient health benefits against GI NoV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Rong Yu
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Public Health, Shenzhen Qianhai Shekou Free Trade Zone Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Dong-Jie Xie
- The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jia-Heng Li
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mark Momoh Koroma
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Duo-Na Jing
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jia-Yi Xu
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun-Xuan Yu
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hui-Sha Du
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fei-Yuan Zhou
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhi-Yan Liang
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xu-Fu Zhang
- The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ying-Chun Dai
- Department of Epidemiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Yu Y, Han F, Yang M, Zhang X, Chen Y, Yu M, Wang Y. Pseudomonas composti isolate from oyster digestive tissue specifically binds with norovirus GII.6 via Psl extracellular polysaccharide. Int J Food Microbiol 2023; 406:110369. [PMID: 37666026 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2023.110369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
Oysters are recognized as important vectors for human norovirus transmission in the environment. Whether norovirus binds to bacteria in oyster digestive tissues (ODTs) remains unknown. To shed light on this concern, ODT-54 and ODT-32, positive for histo-blood group antigen (HBGA) -like substances, were isolated from ODTs and identified as Pseudomonas composti and Enterobacter cloacae, respectively. The binding of noroviruses (GII.4 and GII.6 P domains) to bacterial cells (ODT-32 and ODT-54; in situ assay) as well as extracted extracellular polysaccharides (EPSs; in vitro assay) was analyzed by flow cytometry, confocal laser scanning microscopy, ELISA, and gene knock-out mutants. ODT-32 bound to neither GII.4 nor GII.6 P domains, while ODT-54 specifically binds with GII.6 P domain through Psl, an exopolysaccharide encoded by the polysaccharide synthesis locus (psl), identified based on gene annotation, gene transcription, Psl specific staining, and ELISAs. These findings attest that ODT bacteria specifically bind with certain norovirus genotypes in a strain-dependent manner, contributing to a better understanding of the transmission and enrichment of noroviruses in the environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yongxin Yu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, China
| | - Feng Han
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, East China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Mingshu Yang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya, China
| | - Xiaoya Zhang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yunfei Chen
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mingxia Yu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yongjie Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China; Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Liao N, Tang M, Chen L, Tian P, Wang D, Cheng D, Wu G. Soluble extracellular polymeric substance (SEPS) of histo-blood group antigen (HBGA) expressing bacterium Sphingobacterium sp. SC015 influences the survival and persistence of norovirus on lettuce. Food Microbiol 2023; 109:104126. [PMID: 36309436 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2022.104126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne norovirus (NoV) outbreaks linked to leafy greens are common due to a lack of efficient strategies to prevent NoV spread from contaminated surfaces. We previously found that Sphingobacterium sp. SC015 in lettuce phyllosphere expresses histo-blood group antigen (HBGA)-like substances in soluble extracellular polymeric substances (SEPS) that contribute to NoV adherence on lettuce. Here, we extracted SEPS from bacterium SC015 (SEPS-SC015), analyzed their chemical composition, and examined their roles in the survival and protection of NoV and surrogates [murine norovirus (MNV-1) and Tulane virus (TuV)] on lettuce. Presence of SEPS-SC015 significantly increased survival and persistence of human NoV (HuNoV), MNV-1, and TuV at days 7 and 14, compared with virus alone. HuNoV, TuV, and MNV-1 seeded with SEPS-SC015 were more resistant to heat (70 °C, 2 min) than these viruses alone. SEPS-SC015 also increased viral resistance to sodium hypochlorite inactivation by treatment with 30 and 300 ppm bleach at 26 °C for 10 min. However, SEPS-SC015 was not effective at protecting these viruses under UV inactivation. Binding of TuV to SC015 bacteria and SEPS-SC015, visualized using transmission electron microscopy, suggests that protection might be related to direct interaction between SEPS-SC015 and viral particles. This study provides important insights that will help inform strategies to improve food safety.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ningbo Liao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, 330045, China
| | - Mengxuan Tang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, 330045, China
| | - Lili Chen
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, 310051, China
| | - Peng Tian
- Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA, United States
| | - Dapeng Wang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Dongqing Cheng
- College of Medical Technology, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, 310053, China.
| | - Guoping Wu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, 330045, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
The Role of Histo-Blood Group Antigens and Microbiota in Human Norovirus Replication in Zebrafish Larvae. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0315722. [PMID: 36314930 PMCID: PMC9769672 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03157-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus (HuNoV) is the major agent for viral gastroenteritis, causing >700 million infections yearly. Fucose-containing carbohydrates named histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) are known (co)receptors for HuNoV. Moreover, bacteria of the gut microbiota expressing HBGA-like structures have shown an enhancing effect on HuNoV replication in an in vitro model. Here, we studied the role of HBGAs and the host microbiota during HuNoV infection in zebrafish larvae. Using whole-mount immunohistochemistry, we visualized the fucose expression in the zebrafish gut for the HBGA Lewis X [LeX, α(1,3)-fucose] and core fucose [α(1,6)-fucose]. Costaining of HuNoV-infected larvae proved colocalization of LeX and to a lower extent core fucose with the viral capsid protein VP1, indicating the presence of fucose residues on infected cells. Upon blocking of fucose expression by a fluorinated fucose analogue, HuNoV replication was strongly reduced. Furthermore, by comparing HuNoV replication in conventional and germfree zebrafish larvae, we found that the natural zebrafish microbiome does not have an effect on HuNoV replication, contrary to earlier reports about the human gut microbiome. Interestingly, monoassociation with the HBGA-expressing Enterobacter cloacae resulted in a minor decrease in HuNoV replication, which was not triggered by a stronger innate immune response. Overall, we show here that fucose has an essential role for HuNoV infection in zebrafish larvae, as in the human host, but their natural gut microbiome does not affect viral replication. IMPORTANCE Despite causing over 700 million infections yearly, many gaps remain in the knowledge of human norovirus (HuNoV) biology due to an historical lack of efficient cultivation systems. Fucose-containing carbohydrate structures, named histo-blood group antigens, are known to be important (co)receptors for viral entry in humans, while the natural gut microbiota is suggested to enhance viral replication. This study shows a conserved mechanism of entry for HuNoV in the novel zebrafish infection model, highlighting the pivotal opportunity this model represents to study entry mechanisms and identify the cellular receptor of HuNoV. Our results shed light on the interaction of HuNoV with the zebrafish microbiota, contributing to the understanding of the interplay between gut microbiota and enteric viruses. The ease of generating germfree animals that can be colonized with human gut bacteria is an additional advantage of using zebrafish larvae in virology. This small animal model constitutes an innovative alternative to high-severity animal models.
Collapse
|
6
|
Deere D, Ryan U. Current assumptions for quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) of Norovirus contamination of drinking water catchments due to recreational activities: an update. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2022; 20:1543-1557. [PMID: 36308498 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2022.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Contamination of drinking water from Norovirus (NoV) and other waterborne viruses is a major public health concern globally. Increasingly, quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is being used to assess the various risks from waterborne pathogens and evaluate control strategies. As urban populations grow and expand, there is increasing demand for recreational activities in drinking water catchments. QMRA relies on context-specific data to map out the pathways by which viruses can enter water and be transferred to drinking water consumers and identify risk factors and appropriate controls. This review examines the current evidence base and assumptions for QMRA analysis of NoV and other waterborne viral pathogens and recommends numerical values based on the most recent evidence to better understand the health risks associated with recreators in Australian drinking water sources; these are broadly applicable to all drinking water sources where recreational access is allowed. Key issues include the lack of an agreed upon data and dose-response models for human infectious NoV genotypes, faecal shedding by bathers, the extent of NoV infectivity and aggregation, resistance (secretor status) to NoV and the extent of secondary transmission.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dan Deere
- Water Futures and Water Research Australia, Sydney, Australia
| | - Una Ryan
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Bereznicka A, Mikolajczyk K, Czerwinski M, Kaczmarek R. Microbial lectome versus host glycolipidome: How pathogens exploit glycosphingolipids to invade, dupe or kill. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:958653. [PMID: 36060781 PMCID: PMC9437549 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.958653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycosphingolipids (GSLs) are ubiquitous components of the cell membranes, found across several kingdoms of life, from bacteria to mammals, including humans. GSLs are a subclass of major glycolipids occurring in animal lipid membranes in clusters named “lipid rafts.” The most crucial functions of GSLs include signal transduction and regulation as well as participation in cell proliferation. Despite the mainstream view that pathogens rely on protein–protein interactions to survive and thrive in their hosts, many also target the host lipids. In particular, multiple pathogens produce adhesion molecules or toxins that bind GSLs. Attachment of pathogens to cell surface receptors is the initial step in infections. Many mammalian pathogens have evolved to recognize GSL-derived receptors. Animal glycosphingolipidomes consist of multiple types of GSLs differing in terminal glycan and ceramide structures in a cell or tissue-specific manner. Interspecies differences in GSLs dictate host specificity as well as cell and tissue tropisms. Evolutionary pressure exerted by pathogens on their hosts drives changes in cell surface glycoconjugates, including GSLs, and has produced a vast number of molecules and interaction mechanisms. Despite that abundance, the role of GSLs as pathogen receptors has been largely overlooked or only cursorily discussed. In this review, we take a closer look at GSLs and their role in the recognition, cellular entry, and toxicity of multiple bacterial, viral and fungal pathogens.
Collapse
|
8
|
John JL, Mori D, Amit LN, Mosiun AK, Chin AZ, Ahmed K. High proportion of norovirus infection and predominance of GII.3 [P12] genotype among the children younger than 5 in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. J Clin Virol 2021; 143:104968. [PMID: 34509928 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2021.104968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Globally, norovirus (NoV) has become one of the important causes of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in children. It is responsible for death of children younger than 5 years in developing countries. Although there is limited information and the rate of child mortality caused by diarrhea is low in Malaysia, the burden of diarrhea is high, especially in Sabah. NoV GI, GII and GIV genogroups are known to infect humans, and GII.4 is the predominant genotype distributed worldwide. Better understanding of the etiology of NoV will help to inform policies for prevention and control. The aim of this study was to determine the burden and genotype distribution of NoV in children younger than 5 years with AGE who attended health-care facilities in Sabah, Malaysia. Diarrhea stool samples were collected from 299 children with AGE and NoV was detected by amplifying the capsid and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis. Nucleotide sequencing of the amplicons was used for genotypes and phylogenetic analyses . NoV-positive stool samples were found in 17.7% (53/299) among which 13/53 (24.5%), 38/53 (71.7%), and 2/53 (3.8%) identified as NoV GI, GII and combination of GI and GII, respectively. The most common genotypes were GII.3 [P12] (80%) followed by GII.6 [P7] (13.3%), and GII.17 [P17] (6.7%). In the phylogenetic tree, all Sabahan NoV samples were shown to share ancestry with their respective genotype from predominantly East Asian countries and to some extent Australia and Europe. However, the Sabahan strains formed independent clusters with significant bootstrap values, indicating a clonal spread after the strains had entered Sabah.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jecelyn Leaslie John
- Borneo Medical and Health Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Daisuke Mori
- Department of Pathobiology and Medical Diagnostics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Lia Natasha Amit
- Borneo Medical and Health Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
| | | | - Abraham Zefong Chin
- Department of Community and Family Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Kamruddin Ahmed
- Borneo Medical and Health Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia; Department of Pathobiology and Medical Diagnostics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Wedekind SIS, Shenker NS. Antiviral Properties of Human Milk. Microorganisms 2021; 9:715. [PMID: 33807146 PMCID: PMC8066736 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9040715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans have always coexisted with viruses, with both positive and negative consequences. Evolutionary pressure on mammals has selected intrinsic properties of lactation and milk to support the relatively immunocompromised neonate from environmental pathogens, as well as support the normal development of diverse immune responses. Human milk supports both adaptive and innate immunity, with specific constituents that drive immune learning and maturation, and direct protection against microorganisms. Viruses constitute one of the most ancient pressures on human evolution, and yet there is a lack of awareness by both public and healthcare professionals of the complexity of human milk as an adaptive response beyond the production of maternal antibodies. This review identifies and describes the specific antiviral properties of human milk and describes how maternal support of infants through lactation is protective beyond antibodies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Natalie S. Shenker
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK;
- Human Milk Foundation, Daniel Hall Building, Rothamsted Institute, Harpenden AL5 2JQ, UK
| |
Collapse
|