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Sun PP, Li D, Su M, Ren Q, Guo WP, Wang JL, Du LY, Xie GC. Cell membrane-bound toll-like receptor-1/2/4/6 monomers and -2 heterodimer inhibit enterovirus 71 replication by activating the antiviral innate response. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1187035. [PMID: 37207203 PMCID: PMC10189127 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1187035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Host immune activation is critical for enterovirus 71 (EV71) clearance and immunopathogenesis. However, the mechanism of innate immune activation, especially of cell membrane-bound toll-like receptors (TLRs), against EV71 remains unknown. We previously demonstrated that TLR2 and its heterodimer inhibit EV71 replication. In this study, we systematically investigated the effects of TLR1/2/4/6 monomers and TLR2 heterodimer (TLR2/TLR1, TLR2/TLR6, and TLR2/TLR4) on EV71 replication and innate immune activation. We found that the overexpression of human- or mouse-derived TLR1/2/4/6 monomers and TLR2 heterodimer significantly inhibited EV71 replication and induced the production of interleukin (IL)-8 via activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways. Furthermore,human-mouse chimeric TLR2 heterodimer inhibited EV71 replication and activated innate immunity. Dominant-negative TIR-less (DN)-TLR1/2/4/6 did not exert any inhibitory effects, whereas DN-TLR2 heterodimer inhibited EV71 replication. Prokaryotic expression of purified recombinant EV71 capsid proteins (VP1, VP2, VP3, and VP4) or overexpression of EV71 capsid proteins induced the production of IL-6 and IL-8 via activation of the PI3K/AKT and MAPK pathways. Notably, two types of EV71 capsid proteins served as pathogen-associated molecular patterns for TLR monomers (TLR2 and TLR4) and TLR2 heterodimer (TLR2/TLR1, TLR2/TLR6, and TLR2/TLR4) and activated innate immunity. Collectively, our results revealed that membrane TLRs inhibited EV71 replication via activation of the antiviral innate response, providing insights into the EV71 innate immune activation mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping-Ping Sun
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, College of Basic Medicine, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, Hebei, China
| | - Dan Li
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, College of Basic Medicine, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, Hebei, China
| | - Meng Su
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, College of Basic Medicine, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, Hebei, China
| | - Qing Ren
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, College of Basic Medicine, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, Hebei, China
| | - Wen-Ping Guo
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, College of Basic Medicine, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, Hebei, China
| | - Jiang-Li Wang
- Department of Microbiology Laboratory, Chengde Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengde, Hebei, China
| | - Luan-Ying Du
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, College of Basic Medicine, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, Hebei, China
| | - Guang-Cheng Xie
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, College of Basic Medicine, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, Hebei, China
- Institute of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medicine, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, Hebei, China
- *Correspondence: Guang-Cheng Xie,
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2
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IKKε isoform switching governs the immune response against EV71 infection. Commun Biol 2021; 4:663. [PMID: 34079066 PMCID: PMC8172566 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02187-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The reciprocal interactions between pathogens and hosts are complicated and profound. A comprehensive understanding of these interactions is essential for developing effective therapies against infectious diseases. Interferon responses induced upon virus infection are critical for establishing host antiviral innate immunity. Here, we provide a molecular mechanism wherein isoform switching of the host IKKε gene, an interferon-associated molecule, leads to alterations in IFN production during EV71 infection. We found that IKKε isoform 2 (IKKε v2) is upregulated while IKKε v1 is downregulated in EV71 infection. IKKε v2 interacts with IRF7 and promotes IRF7 activation through phosphorylation and translocation of IRF7 in the presence of ubiquitin, by which the expression of IFNβ and ISGs is elicited and virus propagation is attenuated. We also identified that IKKε v2 is activated via K63-linked ubiquitination. Our results suggest that host cells induce IKKε isoform switching and result in IFN production against EV71 infection. This finding highlights a gene regulatory mechanism in pathogen-host interactions and provides a potential strategy for establishing host first-line defense against pathogens.
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3
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Song J, Hu Y, Li W, Li H, Zheng H, Chen Y, Dong S, Liu L. Transcriptome analysis following enterovirus 71 and coxsackievirus A16 infection in respiratory epithelial cells. Arch Virol 2020; 165:2817-2828. [PMID: 32990841 PMCID: PMC7522011 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-020-04821-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV-A71) and coxsackievirus A16 (CV-A16) are the major pathogens responsible for hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD), but the mechanism by which these viruses cause disease remains unclear. In this study, we used transcriptome sequencing technology to investigate changes in the transcriptome profiles after infection with EV-A71 and CV-A16 in human bronchial epithelial (16HBE) cells. Using systematic bioinformatics analysis, we then searched for useful clues regarding the pathogenesis of HFMD. As a result, a total of 111 common differentially expressed genes were present in both EV-A71- and CV-A16-infected cells. A trend analysis of these 111 genes showed that 91 of them displayed the same trend in EV-A71 and CV-A16 infection, including 49 upregulated genes and 42 downregulated genes. These 91 genes were further used to conduct GO, pathway, and coexpression network analysis. It was discovered that enriched GO terms (such as histone acetylation and positive regulation of phosphorylation) and pathways (such as glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchor biosynthesis and DNA replication) might be closely associated with the pathogenic mechanism of these two viruses, and key genes (such as TBCK and GPC) might be involved in the progression of HFMD. Finally, we randomly selected 10 differentially expressed genes for qRT-PCR to validate the transcriptome sequencing data. The experimental qRT-PCR results were roughly in agreement with the results of transcriptome sequencing. Collectively, our results provide clues to the mechanism of pathogenesis of HFMD induced by EV-A71 and CV-A16.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Song
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development on Severe Infectious Diseases, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, 650118, China.,Key Laboratory of Systemic Innovative Research on Virus Vaccine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Kunming, 650118, China
| | - Yajie Hu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, 650002, China
| | - Weiyu Li
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development on Severe Infectious Diseases, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, 650118, China
| | - Hui Li
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development on Severe Infectious Diseases, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, 650118, China
| | - Huiwen Zheng
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development on Severe Infectious Diseases, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, 650118, China
| | - Yanli Chen
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development on Severe Infectious Diseases, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, 650118, China.,Key Laboratory of Systemic Innovative Research on Virus Vaccine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Kunming, 650118, China
| | - Shaozhong Dong
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development on Severe Infectious Diseases, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, 650118, China.
| | - Longding Liu
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development on Severe Infectious Diseases, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, 650118, China. .,Key Laboratory of Systemic Innovative Research on Virus Vaccine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Kunming, 650118, China.
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4
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Li D, Su M, Sun PP, Guo WP, Wang CY, Wang JL, Wang H, Zhang Q, Du LY, Xie GC. Global profiling of the alternative splicing landscape reveals transcriptomic diversity during the early phase of enterovirus 71 infection. Virology 2020; 548:213-225. [PMID: 32763492 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2020.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The alteration of host cell splicing is a major strategy favouring viral replication; however, the interaction between human tonsillar epithelial cells (HTECs) and enterovirus 71 (EV71) has not been fully elucidated. Here, a total of 201 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 3266 novel genes with coding potential were identified. A total of 3479 skipped exons (SEs), 515 alternative 3' splice sites (A3SSs), 391 alternative 5' splice sites (A5SSs), 531 mutually exclusive exons (MXEs) and 825 retained introns (RIs) were identified as significantly altered alternative splicing (AS) events. The enriched DEGs were mainly related to the cell cycle, spliceosome, and Toll-like receptor (TLR) signalling pathways. Finally, the replication of EV71 was significantly inhibited by TLR2 heterodimers. Our findings suggest that AS events induced by EV71 increase the transcriptomic diversity of HTECs in response to EV71 infection. Additionally, TLR2 heterodimers have the potential to protect HTECs against EV71.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, 067000, China
| | - Meng Su
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, 067000, China
| | - Ping-Ping Sun
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, 067000, China
| | - Wen-Ping Guo
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, 067000, China
| | - Chun-Yang Wang
- Clinical Medical College, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, 710021, China
| | - Jiang-Li Wang
- Department of Microbiology Laboratory, Chengde Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengde, 067000, China
| | - Hong Wang
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Qing Zhang
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Luan-Ying Du
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, 067000, China
| | - Guang-Cheng Xie
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, 067000, China.
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5
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Sen R, Nayak L, De RK. A review on host-pathogen interactions: classification and prediction. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2016; 35:1581-99. [PMID: 27470504 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-016-2716-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The research on host-pathogen interactions is an ever-emerging and evolving field. Every other day a new pathogen gets discovered, along with comes the challenge of its prevention and cure. As the intelligent human always vies for prevention, which is better than cure, understanding the mechanisms of host-pathogen interactions gets prior importance. There are many mechanisms involved from the pathogen as well as the host sides while an interaction happens. It is a vis-a-vis fight of the counter genes and proteins from both sides. Who wins depends on whether a host gets an infection or not. Moreover, a higher level of complexity arises when the pathogens evolve and become resistant to a host's defense mechanisms. Such pathogens pose serious challenges for treatment. The entire human population is in danger of such long-lasting persistent infections. Some of these infections even increase the rate of mortality. Hence there is an immediate emergency to understand how the pathogens interact with their host for successful invasion. It may lead to discovery of appropriate preventive measures, and the development of rational therapeutic measures and medication against such infections and diseases. This review, a state-of-the-art updated scenario of host-pathogen interaction research, has been done by keeping in mind this urgency. It covers the biological and computational aspects of host-pathogen interactions, classification of the methods by which the pathogens interact with their hosts, different machine learning techniques for prediction of host-pathogen interactions, and future scopes of this research field.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Sen
- Machine Intelligence Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, 203, Barrackpore Trunk Road, Kolkata, 700108, India
| | - L Nayak
- Machine Intelligence Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, 203, Barrackpore Trunk Road, Kolkata, 700108, India
| | - R K De
- Machine Intelligence Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, 203, Barrackpore Trunk Road, Kolkata, 700108, India.
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6
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Li H, Li S, Zheng J, Cai C, Ye B, Yang J, Chen Z. Cerebrospinal fluid Th1/Th2 cytokine profiles in children with enterovirus 71-associated meningoencephalitis. Microbiol Immunol 2016; 59:152-9. [PMID: 25611005 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2014] [Revised: 01/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection can cause severe neurological complications including meningoencephalitis (ME) in some patients with hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD). However, to date no studies have reported changes in cytokine concentrations and their correlations with clinical variables in patients with ME following EV71 infection. In this study, responses of Th1/Th2 cytokine, including IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α and IFN-γ, in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with EV71-related HFMD with ME and patients with febrile convulsions (FC) were analyzed using cytometric bead array technology. It was found that CSF IL-6 and IFN-γ concentrations were significantly higher in patients with EV71-related ME than in those with FC. Additionally, both CSF IL-6 and IFN-γ concentrations were correlated with CSF cytology, fever duration and duration of hospital stay. More interestingly, a positive correlation between CSF IL-6 and IFN-γ concentrations was observed. Finally, receiver operating characteristic analysis revealed that when a cutoff value of 9.40 pg/mL was set for IL-6, the sensitivity and specificity were 84.5% and 85.5%, respectively, for discriminating EV71-related ME from FC. In conclusion, IL-6 and IFN-γ may be associated with EV71-induced neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huajun Li
- Department of Pulmonology, Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310003,; Department of Pediatrics, Shaoxing People's Hospital, Shaoxing, Zhejiang, 312000
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7
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Zhang LK, Lin T, Zhu SL, Xianyu LZ, Lu SY. Global quantitative proteomic analysis of human glioma cells profiled host protein expression in response to enterovirus type 71 infection. Proteomics 2015; 15:3784-96. [PMID: 26350028 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201500134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is one of the leading causes of hand, foot and mouth disease with neurological complications in some cases. To study the pathogenesis of EV71 infection, large-scale analyses of EV71 infected cells have been performed. However, most of these studies employed rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells or used transcriptomic strategy. Here, we performed SILAC-based quantitative proteomic analysis of EV71-infected U251 cells, a human glioma cell line. A total of 3125 host proteins were quantified, in which 451 were differentially regulated as a result of EV71 infection at 8 or 20 hpi or both. Gene Ontology analysis indicates the regulated proteins were enriched in "metabolic process", "biological regulation" and "cellular process", implying that these biological processes were affected by EV71 infection. Furthermore, functional study indicated that TRAF2 and TRAF6 among the up-regulated proteins could inhibit the replication of EV71 at the early phase post infection, and the anti-EV71 function of both proteins was independent of interferon β. Our study not only provided an overview of cellular response to EV71 infection in a human glioma cell line, but also found that TRAF2 and TRAF6 might be potential targets to inhibit the replication of EV71. All MS data have been deposited in the ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD002454 (http://proteomecentral.proteomexchange.org/dataset/PXD002454).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei-Ke Zhang
- Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Tao Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Sheng-Lin Zhu
- Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Ling-Zhi Xianyu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Song-Ya Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China
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8
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Li HY, Zhang LK, Zhu XJ, Shang J, Chen X, Zhu Y, Guo L. Analysis of EV71 infection progression using triple-SILAC-based proteomics approach. Proteomics 2015; 15:3629-43. [PMID: 26306425 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201500180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV71), a member of Picornaviridae, causes severe neurological and systemic illness in children. To better understand the virus-host cell interactions, we performed a triple-SILAC-based quantitative proteomics study monitoring host cell proteome changes after EV71 infection. Based on the quantitative data for more than 4100 proteins, ∼17% of the proteins were found as significantly changed (p<0.01) at either 8 or 20 hours post infection. Five biological processes and seven protein classes showed significant differences. Functional screening of nine regulated proteins discovered the regulatory role of CHCH2, a mitochondrial protein known as a transcriptional activator for cytochrome c oxidase, in EV71 replication. Further studies showed that CHCH2 served as a negative regulator of innate immune responses. All MS data have been deposited in the ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD002483 (http://proteomecentral.proteomexchange.org/dataset/PXD002483).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Yu Li
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China.,College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Lei-Ke Zhang
- Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Xiu-Juan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China.,College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Jun Shang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China.,College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Xi Chen
- Wuhan Institute of Biotechnology, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Ying Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China.,College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Lin Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China.,College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China
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9
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Droplet digital PCR as a useful tool for the quantitative detection of Enterovirus 71. J Virol Methods 2014; 207:200-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2014.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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10
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Lui YLE, Tan TL, Woo WH, Timms P, Hafner LM, Tan KH, Tan EL. Enterovirus71 (EV71) utilise host microRNAs to mediate host immune system enhancing survival during infection. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102997. [PMID: 25047717 PMCID: PMC4105423 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (HFMD) is a self-limiting viral disease that mainly affects infants and children. In contrast with other HFMD causing enteroviruses, Enterovirus71 (EV71) has commonly been associated with severe clinical manifestation leading to death. Currently, due to a lack in understanding of EV71 pathogenesis, there is no antiviral therapeutics for the treatment of HFMD patients. Therefore the need to better understand the mechanism of EV71 pathogenesis is warranted. We have previously reported a human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line (HT29) based model to study the pathogenesis of EV71. Using this system, we showed that knockdown of DGCR8, an essential cofactor for microRNAs biogenesis resulted in a reduction of EV71 replication. We also demonstrated that there are miRNAs changes during EV71 pathogenesis and EV71 utilise host miRNAs to attenuate antiviral pathways during infection. Together, data from this study provide critical information on the role of miRNAs during EV71 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Long Edmund Lui
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore, Singapore
- Centre for Biomedical and Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore, Singapore
- * E-mail: (YLEL) (YL); (LMH) (LH)
| | - Tuan Lin Tan
- School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Wee Hong Woo
- School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Peter Timms
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
| | - Louise Marie Hafner
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- * E-mail: (YLEL) (YL); (LMH) (LH)
| | - Kian Hwa Tan
- School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Eng Lee Tan
- Centre for Biomedical and Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Paediatrics, University Children’s Medical Institute, National University Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
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