Histamine levels in seventeen species of fresh and processed South African seafood

Phylogenetically diverse bacterial species produce histamine

Histamine is an important biogenic amine known to impact a variety of patho-physiological processes ranging from allergic reactions, gut-mediated anti-inflammatory responses, and neurotransmitter activity. Histamine is found both endogenously within specialized host cells and exogenously in microbes. Exogenous histamine is produced through the decarboxylation of the amino acid L-histidine by bacterial-derived histidine decarboxylase enzymes. To investigate how widespread histamine production is across bacterial species, we examined 102,018 annotated genomes in the Integrated Microbial Genomes Database and identified 3,679 bacterial genomes (3.6 %) which possess the enzymatic machinery to generate histamine. These bacteria belonged to 10 phyla: Bacillota, Bacteroidota, Actinomycetota, Pseudomonadota, Lentisphaerota, Fusobacteriota, Armatimonadota, Cyanobacteriota, Thermodesulfobacteriota, and Verrucomicrobiota. The majority of the identified bacteria were terrestrial or aquatic in origin, although several bacteria originated in the human gut microbiota. We used liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based targeted metabolomics to confirm our genome discoveries correlated with L-histidine-to-histamine conversion in a chemically defined bacterial growth medium by a cohort of select environmental and human gut bacteria. We found that environmental microbes Vibrio harveyi, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Streptomyces griseus generated considerable levels of histamine (788 - 8,730 ng/mL). Interestingly, we found higher concentrations of histamine produced by gut-associated Fusobacterium varium, Clostridium perfringens, Limosilactobacillus reuteri and Morganella morganii (8,510--82,400 ng/mL). This work expands our knowledge of histamine production by diverse microbes.

Assessment of biogenic amines in commercial tuna fish: Influence of species, capture method, and processing on quality and safety

This study investigated the influence of species, capture method, chilling, and freezing on the quality and variations in biogenic amines of Thunnus tonggol and Thunnus albacares. Samples were collected from different sources, including fisheries ports, cold rooms, and canning factories. The results indicated that canned fish had significantly higher levels of biogenic amines, especially histamine, compared to raw fish from ports and cold rooms. However, all canned samples complied with the FDA regulation of 50 mg/kg for histamine content. Canning led to a substantial increase in total amines, with histamine being the predominant amine in most groups. Putrescine was present in all samples, with the highest levels found in canned tuna made from frozen yellow-fin tuna captured using drift gillnetting. Canned samples also exhibited higher cadaverine levels compared to raw tuna. Storage conditions, capture method, and tuna species were found to significantly affect tuna quality and biogenic amines formation.

Detection, Identification, and Inactivation of Histamine-forming Bacteria in Seafood: A Mini-review

Seafood is one of the essential sources of nutrients for the human diet. However, they can be subject to contamination and can cause foodborne illnesses, including scombroid fish poisoning caused by histamine. Many microorganisms can produce enzymes that eventually decompose endogenous histidine to histamine in postmortem fish muscles and tissues. One of these is histamine-forming bacteria (HFB), primarily found in the gills, gut, and skin of fishes. Previous studies linked a plethora of Gram-negative HFB including Morganella spp. and Photobacterium spp. to scombroid fish poisoning from many types of seafood, especially the Scombridae family. These bacteria possess the hdc gene to produce histidine decarboxylase enzyme. It was reported that Gram-negative HFB produced 6345 ppm in tuna and 1223 ppm in Spanish mackerel. Interestingly, Gram-positive HFB have been isolated in the seafood samples with lower histamine levels. It suggests that Gram-negative HFB are the major contributor to the accumulation of histamine in seafood. Several analytical methods are available to detect and identify HFB and their histamine metabolites from seafood substrates. Rapid test kits can be used in food production settings for early detection of histamine to avoid food intoxication. Furthermore, high hydrostatic pressure and irradiation treatment could prevent the proliferation of HFB and inactivate the existing histidine decarboxylase (HDC) activity. As demonstrated in different seafood model systems, the HDC activity was deactivated at a maximum high hydrostatic pressure level of 400 MPa. The complete inactivation of HFB was achieved by gamma irradiation at a dose of 4.0 kGy. Other postharvest treatments, like enzymatic degradation and electrolyzed oxidizing water, were studied as sustainable methods for bacterial growth prevention and enzyme inactivation. However, other HFB react differently to these treatment conditions, and further studies are recommended.

Effects of bioactive molecules on the concentration of biogenic amines in foods and biological systems

Biogenic amines (BAs) are a group of molecules naturally present in foods that contain amino acids, peptides, and proteins as well as in biological systems. In foods, their concentrations typically increase during processing and storage because of exposure to microorganisms that catalyze their formation by releasing amino acid decarboxylases. The concentrations of BAs above certain values are indicative of unsafe foods due to associate neuronal toxicity, allergenic reactions, and increase risks of cardiovascular diseases. There are therefore various strategies that focus on the control of BAs in foods mostly through elimination, inactivation, or inhibition of the growth of microorganisms. Increasingly, there are works on bioactive compounds that can decrease the concentration of BAs through their antimicrobial activity as well as the inhibition of decarboxylating enzymes that control their formation in foods or amine oxidases and N-acetyltransferase that control the degradation in vivo. This review focusses on the role of food-derived bioactive compounds and the mechanism by which they regulate the concentration of BAs. The findings are that most active molecules belong to polyphenols, one of the largest groups of plant secondary metabolites, additionally other useful +compounds are present in extracts of different herbs and spices. Different mechanisms have been proposed for the effects of polyphenols depending on the model system. Studies on the effects in vivo are limited and there is a lack of bioavailability and transport data which are important to assess the importance of the bioactive molecules.

Exploring the functional and metabolic effects of adding garra fish meal to a plant-based broiler chicken diet

The present study evaluated the metabolic and functional effects of adding garra meal to a broiler chicken diet. Three hundred twenty Sasso-breed day-old chicks were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments with either 0, 10, 20 or 30% garra meal added on top of formulated starter and grower basal diets. The experiment lasted for 42 days. Feed intake and body weight gain increased at the starter and grower phases of broilers with garra meal addition (P < 0.05). Broiler chickens fed 30% garra meal were more efficient in converting feed to body weight and yielded the highest carcass weight (P < 0.05). Crude protein ileal digestibility coefficient was higher with 20% (76.2%), and crude fat with 20 (92.1) and 30% (92.6%) garra meal receiving groups (P < 0.05). The increase in individual and total esterified carnitine concentrations in dried blood spots demonstrated the elevated metabolic rate with garra meal addition (P < 0.05). A better supply of glucogenic substrate to the citric acid cycle was seen with garra meal addition due to the increase of propionylcarnitine to acetylcarnitine ratio (P < 0.05) without any apparent effect on ketogenesis in terms of serum 3-hydroxybutyrylcarnitine to acetylcarnitine ratio. Yet, it likely showed that part of the amino acids from garra meal were used as glucogenic substrate (P < 0.05). Histomorphometry data showed 20% garra meal addition elevated villus height, crypt depth and their ratio in the proximal parts of the small intestine (duodenum and jejunum) with the opposite results observed in the more distal part (ileum) with the highest for the control group (P < 0.05). It can be concluded that garra meal improved broiler performance when added to a plant-based diet and only few parameters warranted for caution when using more up to 30% garra meal addition. Beyond growth performance, garra meal generated a shift to a more efficient digestion, absorption and nutrient metabolism.

Rapid Production of Fish Sauce from the Internal Organs of White Sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanus Richardson, 1836

The internal organs of white sturgeon in Miyazaki Prefecture are discarded during processing. Therefore, we tried to produce fish sauce using a short-term manufacturing method. The minced internal organs were autolyzed by endogenous proteases at 50 °C. During autolysis, the protein contents of the supernatant and precipitate after centrifugation were analyzed by the Kjeldahl method, and the protein size was monitored by SDS-PAGE. This analysis showed that the extraction rate was about 60% after treatment at 50 °C for 24 h. The major bands at 200 kDa, 43 kDa, and 40 kDa detected before the start of the treatment gradually disappeared over time. Fifteen components were detected as the main volatile components. These components increased sharply and then decreased during incubation at 50 °C for 24 h. The fish sauce produced had a good aroma after incubation at 50 °C for 72 h.

Potential hazards associated with the consumption of Scombridae fish: Infection and toxicity from raw material and processing

Scombridae fish (tuna, bonito, and mackerel) have significant ecological and economic values. They are very appreciated by consumers worldwide for their high-quality flesh and for their high nutritional value. However, consumption of Scombridae fish is potentially hazardous. Indeed, several cases of infections and toxicity linked to the consumption of Scombridae fish as raw, or processed food products have been reported worldwide. In this review, we presented the most common health risks associated with Scombridae fish consumption. Diseases associated with the consumption of these fish are generally infectious or toxic and are caused by biological hazards such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, or chemicals hazards that enter the body through contaminated fish (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, histamine) or by physical contaminants such as heavy metals. The risks of contamination exist throughout the food chain, from primary production to the preparation of products for consumption.

Identification of histamine in fish and fish products in Poland during 2014–2018

Introduction

Histamine is one of the most important and toxic biogenic amines which may be present in food and may cause food poisoning in humans when contained at a high level. It is produced during bacterial decarboxylation of histidine in fish muscles. The aim of the study was to investigate the presence of histamine in fish and fish products available in Poland during 2014–2018.

Material and Methods

A total of 421 samples of raw (248), smoked (107), canned (50), and marinated fish (16) were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection.

Results

Histamine was detected in 14.1% samples of raw fish, 29% of smoked fish, 22% of canned fish and 93.8% of marinated fish in concentrations ranging from 3.4 to 156.4 mg/kg. Content of this amine above 100 mg/kg was found in four samples: raw Atlantic salmon, smoked European sprat and two samples of marinated Atlantic herring.

Conclusion

The study showed that fish and fish products on the Polish market generally meet the food safety criteria for histamine and are safe for consumers.

A 5-Years (2015–2019) Control Activity of an EU Laboratory: Contamination of Histamine in Fish Products and Exposure Assessment

Histamine contamination was evaluated on 474 batches (3130 determinations) of fish products collected in Puglia and Basilicata (southern part of Italy) during the years 2015–2019, using a high-throughput two-tier approach involving a screening (ELISA test) and confirmatory method (HPLC/FLD with o-phthalaldehyde derivatization). Histamine concentration >2.5 mg kg−1 was detected in 51% of total batches with the 2.5% of non-compliance. Except for two samples of fresh anchovies, all non-compliant samples were frozen, defrosted and canned tuna. Among 111 fresh tuna batches, 9 had a content of histamine between 393 and 5542 mg kg−1, and scombroid poisoning cases were observed after their consumption. Good quality canned tuna and ripened anchovies sold in Italy was observed. Furthermore, the analysis of the processing technology and storage practice critical points were reported in this study, with useful considerations to minimize the histamine risk for consumers. Finally, based on these results, several considerations about risk exposure were reported.

Histamine in Fish Products Randomly Collected in Southern Italy: A 6-Year Study

ABSTRACT

In total, 4,615 fresh and processed fish samples collected from 2010 to 2015 were analyzed for histamine by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection. Histamine levels were detected in 352 (7.6%) samples, with a maximum of 4,110 mg kg-1 and mean values of 908.9 ± 1,226.79 and 344.01 ± 451.18 mg kg-1 for fresh and processed fish samples, respectively. No histamine levels were found in canned tuna and smoked fish samples in contrast to most of the data reported in the literature. A low percentage (2.79%) of noncompliant samples was found. The highest mean values were found during 2011 and 2015 for fresh and processed fish samples, respectively, showing a significant (P < 0.05) difference between the sampling years. The histamine contents found in fresh fish samples were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those of processed samples. Most of the positive samples came from street vendors, suggesting the need to improve inspection measures in these commercial categories to ensure fish product safety.

HIGHLIGHTS

Production of Anserine-Rich Fish Sauce from Giant Masu Salmon, Oncorhynchus masou masou and γ-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)-Enrichment by Lactobacillus plantarum Strain N10

Previously, we developed a novel production technique for giant masu salmon (GMS). This study aimed to develop a fish sauce from GMS to explore ways to efficiently utilize the salmon and to enrich the fish sauce with γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) by microbial fermentation. The minced bodies of GMS were autolyzed by endogenous protease at 55 °C and 60 °C. During autolysis, the changes in total free amino acids and protein size was monitored by LC-MS and SDS-PAGE analysis, respectively. After 96 h, fish sauce was prepared by heating, and the amino acid composition was analyzed by LC-MS. To enrich the fish sauce with GABA, Lactobacillus plantarum strain N10 was added and incubated at 28 °C for 48 h. The total free amino acids content significantly increased for 96 h. SDS-PAGE analysis showed that major bands at 200 kDa and 48 kDa detected at 0 h gradually disappeared over time. The ratio of anserine to total amino acids in the fish sauce was approximately 36%. The concentration of GABA in the fish sauce significantly increased through the addition of strain N10. Thus, anserine-rich fish sauce could be quickly produced from GMS, and the fish sauce was enriched with GABA by microbial fermentation.

Survey and Exposure Assessment of Biogenic Amines in Fish Species Commonly Consumed in Korea

Because of the increased awareness of the health benefits of fish, fish consumption has increased each year in several countries, including Korea. However, fish consumption is associated with acute toxicity owing to the presence of biogenic amines in rapidly spoiling fish. Several food safety agencies have established standards for acceptable histamine concentrations in some restrictive fish and fishery products; however, such standards are not available for other species. We aimed to generate data from biogenic amine monitoring to evaluate the safety of fish commonly consumed in Korea. We monitored the biogenic amine concentrations in 609 fish samples from 19 commonly consumed species. Of these 609 samples, several had amine concentrations higher than the maximums allowed. An age-specific exposure assessment based on human biogenic amine exposure per serving revealed that persons 1 to 3 years of age had the highest exposure to total biogenic amines, although no significant differences were found between the age groups analyzed. The analysis also revealed that the exposure in some fish species, such as Japanese jack mackerel, Konoshiro gizzard shad, and brown sole, exceeded the standard limits established in some countries. These results suggest that more fish species should be included to establish standards for exposure to various biogenic amines. Parameters such as age-specific consumption and data for populations with maximum consumption should be considered because the current standards are limited to histamine and do not account for the differences in histamine sensitivity associated with these variables. Our results provide important data on limits for biogenic amines in various fish species that could be used to minimize potential health risks.

Biogenic amines in foods

Biogenic amines are produced by bacterial decarboxylation of corresponding amino acids in foods. Concentration of biogenic amines in fermented food products is affected by several factors in the manufacturing process, including hygienic of raw materials, microbial composition, fermentation condition, and the duration of fermentation. Intake of low amount of biogenic amines normally does not have harmful effect on human health. However, when their amount in food is too high and detoxification ability is inhibited or disturbed, biogenic amines could cause problem. To control concentration of BAs in food, decarboxylase activity for amino acids can be regulated. Levels of BAs can be reduced by several methods such as packaging, additives, hydrostatic pressure, irradiation, pasteurization, smoking, starter culture, oxidizing formed biogenic amine, and temperature. The objective of this review paper was to collect, summarize, and discuss necessary information or useful data based on previous studies in terms of BAs in various foods.

Histamine Food Poisoning

The consumption of food containing high amounts of histamine and other biogenic amines can cause food poisoning with different symptoms linked to the individual sensitivity and the detoxification activity. Histamine is the only biogenic amine with regulatory limits set by the European Commission in fish and fishery products, because it can lead to a fatal outcome. However, also fermented foods can be involved in outbreaks and sporadic cases of intoxication. The factors affecting the presence of histamine in food are variable and product specific including the availability of the precursor amino acid, the presence of microorganisms producing decarboxylases, and the conditions allowing their growth and enzyme production. Generally, the good quality of raw material and hygienic practices during food processing as well as the use of histidine decarboxylase-negative starter cultures can minimize the occurrence of histamine. Further studies are necessary to estimate the human exposure and the relationship between the total amount of the biogenic amines ingested with food and health effects.

Fish allergy: in review

Globally, the rising consumption of fish and its derivatives, due to its nutritional value and divergence of international cuisines, has led to an increase in reports of adverse reactions to fish. Reactions to fish are not only mediated by the immune system causing allergies, but are often caused by various toxins and parasites including ciguatera and Anisakis. Allergic reactions to fish can be serious and life threatening and children usually do not outgrow this type of food allergy. The route of exposure is not only restricted to ingestion but include manual handling and inhalation of cooking vapors in the domestic and occupational environment. Prevalence rates of self-reported fish allergy range from 0.2 to 2.29 % in the general population, but can reach up to 8 % among fish processing workers. Fish allergy seems to vary with geographical eating habits, type of fish processing, and fish species exposure. The major fish allergen characterized is parvalbumin in addition to several less well-known allergens. This contemporary review discusses interesting and new findings in the area of fish allergy including demographics, novel allergens identified, immunological mechanisms of sensitization, and innovative approaches in diagnosing and managing this life-long disease.

Trans- and cis-urocanic acid, biogenic amine and amino acid contents in ikan pekasam (fermented fish) produced from Javanese carp (Puntius gonionotus) and black tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)

Ikan pekasam is a fermented fish product produced in Malaysia and is usually made from freshwater fish with ground roasted uncooked rice as the main source of carbohydrate. In this study, the amino acid, biogenic amine, and trans- and cis-urocanic acid (UCA) contents of fifteen commercial samples of Ikan pekasam made from Javanese carp and black tilapia, that had undergone either natural or acid-assisted fermentation, were quantified. The latter includes either tamarind (Tamarindus indica) pulp or dried slices of Garcinia atroviridis fruit in the fermentation process. Results showed that there are no significant differences in most of the biogenic amines including histamine, while there are significant differences in total UCA content, and trans- and cis-UCA contents between the two samples. Differences in the amino acid contents were largely fish-dependent.

Food safety management systems performance in African food processing companies: a review of deficiencies and possible improvement strategies

This study seeks to provide insight into current deficiencies in food safety management systems (FSMS) in African food-processing companies and to identify possible strategies for improvement so as to contribute to African countries' efforts to provide safe food to both local and international markets. This study found that most African food products had high microbiological and chemical contamination levels exceeding the set (legal) limits. Relative to industrialized countries, the study identified various deficiencies at government, sector/branch, retail and company levels which affect performance of FSMS in Africa. For instance, very few companies (except exporting and large companies) have implemented HACCP and ISO 22000:2005. Various measures were proposed to be taken at government (e.g. construction of risk-based legislative frameworks, strengthening of food safety authorities, recommend use of ISO 22000:2005, and consumers' food safety training), branch/sector (e.g. sector-specific guidelines and third-party certification), retail (develop stringent certification standards and impose product specifications) and company levels (improving hygiene, strict raw material control, production process efficacy, and enhancing monitoring systems, assurance activities and supportive administrative structures). By working on those four levels, FSMS of African food-processing companies could be better designed and tailored towards their production processes and specific needs to ensure food safety.

Biogenic amines, amino acids and microflora changes in Indian mackerel (Rastrellinger kanagurta) stored at ambient (25-29 °C) and ice temperature (0 °C)

Biogenic amines formation in Indian mackerel of tropical region was investigated during storage at ambient (25-29 °C) and ice temperature (0 °C) in relation with changes of amino acids content and amines forming bacteria. All amines increased significantly during storage at two temperatures except for spermidine and spermine. Histamine concentration of 363.5 ppm was detected after 16 h stored at ambient temperature. Aerobic plate count of fish stored at ambient temperature reached 6.98 log CFU g(-1) after 16 h, close to the upper limit (7 log CFU g(-1)) suggested by International Commission on the Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF). However, proper icing procedure retarded the formation of histamine effectively, resulting only 8.31 ppm after 16 days of ice storage. Aerobic plate count of 5.99 and 7.72 log CFU g(-1) were recorded for fish stored in ice after 16 days and ambient temperature after 20 h, respectively. Histamine exhibited high correlation with histidine (r(2) = -0.963, P < 0.01) as well as cadaverine with lysine (r(2) = -0.750, P < 0.05). However, tyramine-tyrosine demonstrated a weaker relationship (r(2) = -0.138, P > 0.05). As storage time progressed, the amines forming bacteria grew significantly except for that stored in ice.

Histamine levels in commercially important fresh and processed fish of Oman with reference to international standards

Histamine was investigated in fresh (378), frozen (441), canned (290) and dried (24) fish samples of scombroid and non-scombroid species of Oman using a high performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector. Of the 1133 fish samples tested, histamine was detected in 551 samples with a detection rate of about 41.8% among fresh fish, 61.0% of frozen fish, 78.9% of canned fish and 91.6% of dried fish samples and the mean histamine levels were 2.6, 5.8, 3.1 and 104mgkg(-1), respectively. A total of 3.7% and 0.79% of the total samples exceeded the FDA and EU regulatory limits for histamine. Imported dried anchovies contained high histamine levels. The study confirms that post catching and commercialisation practices of seafood are adequate, warranting good quality fish and may not cause histamine risk to consumer in terms of human diet. While necessary monitoring may be done for imported dried fish products.

Determination of Biogenic Amines and Endotoxin in Squid, Musky Octopus, Norway Lobster, and Mussel Stored at Room Temperature

Little research has been published on the indicators of spoilage in Mediterranean molluscan shellfish and crustaceans. Thus is why we studied changes in the concentrations of endotoxin and four biogenic amines (histamine, putrescine, tyramine and cadaverine) in European common squid (Loligo subulata, Lamarck, 1798), musky octopus (Eledone moschata, Lamarck, 1798), Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus, Linnaeus, 1758), and mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis, Lamarck, 1819) from the Adriatic Sea stored at room temperature for 24 h. Endotoxin load in fresh squid, Norway lobster, and mussel (<1 EU mg-1) indicated good microbiological quality of raw samples. Biogenic amine index (as the sum of histamine, putrescine, tyramine, and cadaverine) correlated well with endotoxin load in squid (r=0.978, p<0.001) and musky octopus (r=0.874, p<0.01). A good correlation was also found between endotoxin and putrescine in Norway lobster (r=0.777, p<0.05). The highest endotoxin load was found in decomposed mussels and was associated with histamine alone. In conclusion, increase in biogenic amine levels is species-specific. Endotoxin analysis could be used for rapid assessment of microbiological quality of cephalopods and shellfish.

Shellfish allergy

Seafood plays an important role in human nutrition and health. The growing international trade in seafood species and products has added to the popularity and frequency of consumption of a variety of seafood products across many countries. This increased production and consumption of seafood has been accompanied by more frequent reports of adverse health problems among consumers as well as processors of seafood. Adverse reactions to seafood are often generated by contaminants but can also be mediated by the immune system and cause allergies. These reactions can result from exposure to the seafood itself or various non-seafood components in the product. Non-immunological reactions to seafood can be triggered by contaminants such as parasites, bacteria, viruses, marine toxins and biogenic amines. Ingredients added during processing and canning of seafood can also cause adverse reactions. Importantly all these substances are able to trigger symptoms which are similar to true allergic reactions, which are mediated by antibodies produced by the immune system against specific allergens. Allergic reactions to 'shellfish', which comprises the groups of crustaceans and molluscs, can generate clinical symptoms ranging from mild urticaria and oral allergy syndrome to life-threatening anaphylactic reactions. The prevalence of crustacean allergy seems to vary largely between geographical locations, most probably as a result of the availability of seafood. The major shellfish allergen is tropomyosin, although other allergens may play an important part in allergenicity such as arginine kinase and myosin light chain. Current observations regard tropomyosin to be the major allergen responsible for molecular and clinical cross-reactivity between crustaceans and molluscs, but also to other inhaled invertebrates such as house dust mites and insects. Future research on the molecular structure of tropomyosins with a focus on the immunological and particularly clinical cross-reactivity will improve diagnosis and management of this potentially life-threatening allergy and is essential for future immunotherapy.