1
|
Reverté J, Rambla-Alegre M, Sanchez-Henao A, Mandalakis M, Peristeraki P, Molgó J, Diogène J, Sureda FX, Campàs M. Toxicity Equivalency Factors for Tetrodotoxin Analogues Determined with Automated Patch Clamp on Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels in Neuro-2a Cells. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:18192-18200. [PMID: 39102522 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c04321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/07/2024]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent marine neurotoxin, responsible for numerous poisoning incidents and some human fatalities. To date, more than 30 TTX analogues have been identified, but their individual toxicities and roles in poisoning remain largely unknown. In this work, the toxicity equivalency factors (TEFs) of five TTX analogues were determined by assessing the blockade of voltage-gated sodium channels in Neuro-2a cells using automated patch clamp (APC). All TTX analogues were less toxic than TTX. The derived TEFs were applied to the individual TTX analogues concentrations measured in pufferfish samples, using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A comparison of these results with those obtained from APC analysis demonstrated that TEFs can be effectively used to translate LC-MS/MS analytical data into meaningful toxicological information. This is the first study to utilize APC device for the toxicological assessment of TTX analogues, highlighting its potential as a bioanalytical tool for seafood safety management and human health protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jaume Reverté
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain
- Basic Medical Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), C/St. Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Spain
| | | | - Andres Sanchez-Henao
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain
- University Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35416 Arucas, Spain
| | - Manolis Mandalakis
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71003 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Panagiota Peristeraki
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71003 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Jordi Molgó
- French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), University of Paris-Saclay, INRAE, DMTS, SIMoS, EMR CNRS 9004, 91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Jorge Diogène
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain
| | - Francesc X Sureda
- Basic Medical Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), C/St. Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Spain
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kawasue S, Kuniyoshi K, Uema M, Oshiro N. Tetrodotoxin Derivatization with a Newly Designed Boron Reagent Leads to Conventional Reversed-Phase Liquid Chromatography. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:260. [PMID: 38922154 PMCID: PMC11209320 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16060260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a representative natural toxin causing pufferfish food poisoning, which is especially prominent in East and Southeast Asia, including Japan. TTX has been analyzed through post-column derivatization high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), ion-pair LC-MS(/MS), and hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC)-MS(/MS) as alternatives to the mouse bioassay method. However, post-column derivatization requires a system for online derivatization reactions, and with the ion-pair LC-MS approach, it is difficult to remove residual ion-pair reagents remaining in the equipment. Moreover, HILIC-MS provides poor separation compared to reversed-phase (RP) HPLC and requires a long time to reach equilibration. Therefore, we decided to develop a TTX analytical method using pre-column derivatization and RP HPLC for the rapid assessment of outbreak samples, including food remnants. In this study, we focused on the vic-diol moiety of TTX and designed a new derivatization reagent coded as NBD-H-DAB. This NBD-H-DAB was synthesized from 4-hydrazino-7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (NBD-H) and 3-fluoro-2-formylphenylboronic acid (FFPBA) with a simple reaction system and rapidly converted to its boronate form, coded NBD-H-PBA, in an aqueous reaction solution. The NBD-H-PBA demonstrated appropriate hydrophobicity to be retained on the RP analytical column and successfully detected with a UV spectrometer. It was easily reacted with the vic-diol moiety of TTX (C6 and C11) to synthesized a boronic ester. The derivatized TTX could be detected using the RP HPLC-UV, and the limit of detection in the fish flesh samples was 0.06 mg/kg. This novel pre-column derivatization of TTX with NBD-H-PBA proves capable for the analysis of TTX.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shimba Kawasue
- National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki 210-9501, Japan; (K.K.); (M.U.)
| | | | | | - Naomasa Oshiro
- National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki 210-9501, Japan; (K.K.); (M.U.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ulman A, Abd Rabou AFN, Al Mabruk S, Bariche M, Bilecenoğlu M, Demirel N, Galil BS, Hüseyinoğlu MF, Jimenez C, Hadjioannou L, Kosker AR, Peristeraki P, Saad A, Samaha Z, Stoumboudi MT, Temraz TA, Karachle PK. Assessment of Human Health Impacts from Invasive Pufferfish (Attacks, Poisonings and Fatalities) across the Eastern Mediterranean. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:208. [PMID: 38666820 PMCID: PMC11048499 DOI: 10.3390/biology13040208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
The silver-cheeked toadfish Lagocephalus sceleratus (Gmelin 1789), and to a lesser degree the orange spotted toadfish Torquigener hypselogeneion (Bleeker, 1852), pose threats to human health from physical attacks and poisonings in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. This study reviewed human health-related impacts resulting from these pufferfish, compiling and assessing records from online sources, the peer-reviewed literature, medical records, personal interviews, and observations across the Eastern Mediterranean in the years 2004 to 2023. A total of 198 events impacting human health were documented: 28 records of physical attacks, at least 144 non-lethal poisoning episodes, and 27 human fatalities resulting from consumption. The majority of the reported incidences occurred in Syria, Türkiye, and Lebanon. Most physical attacks occurred in summer, while most poisoning events occurred during winter. The number of recorded incidents greatly increased after 2019, especially with regard to poisonings, yet whether this is related to greater media attention, or to increased fish abundance is unclear. This is the first comprehensive study to collate findings on attacks, poisonings and fatalities caused by these pufferfish in the Mediterranean Sea, and may help in improving national health policies. We urge the continuation of national campaigns to caution residents and tourists of these species' high toxicities and potential aggressiveness.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aylin Ulman
- Mersea Marine Consulting, 48300 Fethiye, Türkiye;
| | | | - Sara Al Mabruk
- Nursing Department, Higher Institute of Science and Technology-Cyrene, Shahat 6036, Libya;
| | - Michel Bariche
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut P.O. Box 11-0236, Lebanon;
| | - Murat Bilecenoğlu
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, 09010 Aydın, Türkiye;
| | - Nazli Demirel
- Institute of Marine Sciences and Management, Istanbul University, Fatih, 34134 Istanbul, Türkiye;
| | - Bella S. Galil
- The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Israel National Center for Biodiversity Studies, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel;
| | | | - Carlos Jimenez
- Enalia Physis Environmental Research Centre, 2101 Nicosia, Cyprus;
| | | | - Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, 01330 Adana, Türkiye;
| | - Panagiota Peristeraki
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, P.O. Box 2214, 71300 Heraklion, Greece;
| | - Adib Saad
- Directorate of Scientific Research and Publishing, Al-Manara University, Lattakia HQ28 RFM, Syria;
| | - Ziad Samaha
- General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM—FAO), Palazzo Blumenstihl, Via Vittoria Colonna 1, 00193 Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Th. Stoumboudi
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, 576 Vouliagmenis Ave., 16452 Argyroupoli, Greece;
| | - Tarek A. Temraz
- Department of Marine Sciences, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 8366004, Egypt;
| | - Paraskevi K. Karachle
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, 576 Vouliagmenis Ave., 16452 Argyroupoli, Greece;
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kosker AR, Karakus M, Katikou P, Dal İ, Durmus M, Ucar Y, Ayas D, Özogul F. Monthly Variation of Tetrodotoxin Levels in Pufferfish ( Lagocephalus sceleratus) Caught from Antalya Bay, Mediterranean Sea. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:527. [PMID: 37888462 PMCID: PMC10608123 DOI: 10.3390/md21100527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The silver-cheeked toadfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus), an invasive alien pufferfish species that has rapidly settled throughout the Mediterranean region, poses significant threats not only to native marine species and fisheries but also to public health due to the tetrodotoxin (TTX) they harbor. In this study, TTX concentrations in L. sceleratus from Antalya Bay in the Northeastern Mediterranean Sea were investigated using Q-TOF-LC-MS on a monthly basis over a one-year period. Pufferfish were caught by angling from May 2018 to April 2019. The TTX levels in three different tissues (gonads, liver, and muscle) of 110 pufferfish in total were determined in both male and female individuals caught for 11 months. The highest TTX mean levels generally occurred in the gonads and the lowest in the muscle samples. As regards the maximum TTX contents, the highest concentrations determined were 68.2, 34.2, and 7.8 µg/g in the gonad, liver, and muscle tissues, respectively. The highest levels were generally observed in late autumn to winter (especially in November and December) in all tissues from both genders. Female individuals were generally found to be more toxic than male individuals. The TTX levels found confirm that the consumption of L. sceleratus from Antalya Bay remains dangerous throughout the year, and thus L. sceleratus constantly constitutes an important risk source for public health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, 01330 Adana, Turkey; (M.D.); (F.Ö.)
| | - Merve Karakus
- Mediterranean Fisheries Research Production and Training Institute, Demre Unit, 07570 Antalya, Turkey; (M.K.); (İ.D.)
| | - Panagiota Katikou
- Veterinary Research Institute of Thessaloniki, Hellenic Agricultural Organization—DIMITRA, Ktima Thermis, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - İsmail Dal
- Mediterranean Fisheries Research Production and Training Institute, Demre Unit, 07570 Antalya, Turkey; (M.K.); (İ.D.)
| | - Mustafa Durmus
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, 01330 Adana, Turkey; (M.D.); (F.Ö.)
| | - Yılmaz Ucar
- Vocational School of Aladag, Department of Forestry, Cukurova University, 01720 Adana, Turkey;
| | - Deniz Ayas
- Fisheries Faculty, Mersin University, 33169 Mersin, Turkey;
| | - Fatih Özogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, 01330 Adana, Turkey; (M.D.); (F.Ö.)
- Biotechnology Research and Application Center, Cukurova University, 01330 Adana, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Gonzalez M, Carazzone C. Eco-Metabolomics Applied to the Chemical Ecology of Poison Frogs (Dendrobatoidea). J Chem Ecol 2023; 49:570-598. [PMID: 37594619 PMCID: PMC10725362 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-023-01443-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
Amphibians are one of the most remarkable sources of unique natural products. Biogenic amines, peptides, bufodienolides, alkaloids, and volatile organic compounds have been characterized in different species. The superfamily Dendrobatoidea represents one of the most enigmatic cases of study in chemical ecology because their skin secretome is composed by a complex mixture (i.e. cocktail) of highly lethal and noxious unique alkaloid structures. While chemical defences from dendrobatoids (families Dendrobatidae and Aromobatidae) have been investigated employing ecological, behavioral, phylogenetic and evolutionary perspectives, studies about the analytical techniques needed to perform the chemical characterization have been neglected for many years. Therefore, our aim is to summarize the current methods applied for the characterization of chemical profiles in dendrobatoids and to illustrate innovative Eco-metabolomics strategies that could be translated to this study model. This approach could be extended to natural products other than alkaloids and implemented for the chemical analysis of different species of dendrobatoids employing both low- and high-resolution mass spectrometers. Here, we overview important biological features to be considered, procedures that could be applied to perform the chemical characterization, steps and tools to perform an Eco-metabolomic analysis, and a final discussion about future perspectives.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mabel Gonzalez
- Department of Chemistry, Universidad de los Andes, 4976, Bogotá, AA, Colombia.
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA.
| | - Chiara Carazzone
- Department of Chemistry, Universidad de los Andes, 4976, Bogotá, AA, Colombia.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Anastasiou TI, Kagiampaki E, Kondylatos G, Tselepides A, Peristeraki P, Mandalakis M. Assessing the Toxicity of Lagocephalus sceleratus Pufferfish from the Southeastern Aegean Sea and the Relationship of Tetrodotoxin with Gonadal Hormones. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:520. [PMID: 37888455 PMCID: PMC10608560 DOI: 10.3390/md21100520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Given the dramatic increase in the L. sceleratus population in the southeastern Aegean Sea, there is growing interest in assessing the toxicity of this pufferfish and the factors controlling its tetrodotoxin (TTX) content. In the present study, liver, gonads, muscle and skin of 37 L. sceleratus specimens collected during May and June 2021 from the island of Rhodes, Greece, were subjected to multi-analyte profiling using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in order to quantitate TTX and evaluate whether this biotoxin interrelates with hormones. TTX and its analogues 4-epiTTX, 11-deoxyTTX, 11-norTTX-6-ol, 4,9-anhydroTTX and 5,11/6,11-dideoxyTTX were detected in all tissue types. Liver and gonads were the most toxic tissues, with the highest TTX concentrations being observed in the ovaries of female specimens. Only 22% of the analyzed muscle samples were non-toxic according to the Japanese toxicity threshold (2.2 μg TTX eq g-1), confirming the high poisoning risk from the inadvertent consumption of this species. Four steroid hormones (i.e., cortisol, testosterone, androstenedione and β-estradiol) and the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) were detected in the gonads. Androstenedione dominated in female specimens, while GnRH was more abundant in males. A positive correlation of TTX and its analogues with β-estradiol was observed. However, a model incorporating sex rather than β-estradiol as the independent variable proven to be more efficient in predicting TTX concentration, implying that other sex-related characteristics are more important than specific hormone-regulated processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thekla I Anastasiou
- Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, 71500 Heraklion, Greece
- Department of Biology, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Eirini Kagiampaki
- Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, 71500 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Gerasimos Kondylatos
- Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), Hydrobiological Station of Rhodes, 85131 Rhodes, Greece
| | | | - Panagiota Peristeraki
- Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, 71500 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Manolis Mandalakis
- Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, 71500 Heraklion, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Alkassar M, Sanchez-Henao A, Reverté J, Barreiro L, Rambla-Alegre M, Leonardo S, Mandalakis M, Peristeraki P, Diogène J, Campàs M. Evaluation of Toxicity Equivalency Factors of Tetrodotoxin Analogues with a Neuro-2a Cell-Based Assay and Application to Puffer Fish from Greece. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:432. [PMID: 37623713 PMCID: PMC10455759 DOI: 10.3390/md21080432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent marine neurotoxin involved in poisoning cases, especially through the consumption of puffer fish. Knowledge of the toxicity equivalency factors (TEFs) of TTX analogues is crucial in monitoring programs to estimate the toxicity of samples analyzed with instrumental analysis methods. In this work, TTX analogues were isolated from the liver of a Lagocephalus sceleratus individual caught on South Crete coasts. A cell-based assay (CBA) for TTXs was optimized and applied to the establishment of the TEFs of 5,11-dideoxyTTX, 11-norTTX-6(S)-ol, 11-deoxyTTX and 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX. Results showed that all TTX analogues were less toxic than the parent TTX, their TEFs being in the range of 0.75-0.011. Then, different tissues of three Lagocephalus sceleratus individuals were analyzed with CBA and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The obtained TEFs were applied to the TTX analogues' concentrations obtained by LC-MS/MS analysis, providing an indication of the overall toxicity of the sample. Information about the TEFs of TTX analogues is valuable for food safety control, allowing the estimation of the risk of fish products to consumers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mounira Alkassar
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Andres Sanchez-Henao
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Jaume Reverté
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Lourdes Barreiro
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Maria Rambla-Alegre
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Sandra Leonardo
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Manolis Mandalakis
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, 71003 Heraklion, Greece;
| | - Panagiota Peristeraki
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, 71003 Heraklion, Greece;
| | - Jorge Diogène
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Mònica Campàs
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (M.A.); (A.S.-H.); (J.R.); (L.B.); (M.R.-A.); (S.L.); (J.D.)
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Vlasenko AE, Magarlamov TY. Tetrodotoxins in Ribbon Worms Cephalothrix cf. simula and Kulikovia alborostrata from Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 15:16. [PMID: 36668836 PMCID: PMC9860856 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin, an extremely potent low-molecular-weight neurotoxin, and its analogues (TTXs) are widely distributed in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Most investigations concerning TTXs have been conducted mainly on puffer fish, octopus, and mollusks, without paying due attention to various non-edible animals including nemerteans, a small group of marine worms, several species of which have been shown to possess high amounts of TTXs. In this study, for the first time, variations in TTX and its analogues, in 32 specimens of Cephalothrix cf. simula and 36 specimens of Kulikovia alborostrata, from Peter the Great Bay Sea of Japan were investigated, which may contribute to elucidation of TTXs migration pathways in ecosystems. Using high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS), it was found that the total TTXs concentrations within both species vary by one to several orders of magnitude, 85.75-7108.26 µg/g and 0.35-8.11 ng/g in C. cf. simula and K. alborostrata, respectively. The intra- and interspecies similarities in proportions of TTXs in both species were observed; based on the results, a possible way of their toxification was discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Timur Yu. Magarlamov
- A.V. Zhirmunsky National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 690041 Vladivostok, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Li T, Wang R, Wang P. Development of a Proton-Enhanced ESI UPLC-MS/MS Method for the Determination of Tetrodotoxin. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27248967. [PMID: 36558099 PMCID: PMC9785107 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27248967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a kind of low-molecular-weight non-protein neurotoxin. It is one of the most potent neurotoxins found in nature, and it is found in puffer fish and various marine biota. The low sensitivity of previous analytical methods limited their application in puffer fish organ samples. This study established a method for the accurate and fast determination of TTX by reversed ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with proton-enhanced electron spray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. The method yields good peak shapes, high sensitivity and low coeluted interferences. The method was successfully applied to determine TTX in puffer fish tissue samples of about 0.2 g.
Collapse
|
10
|
Hu C, Zhang Y, Zhou Y, Xiang YJY, Liu ZF, Wang ZH, Feng XS. Tetrodotoxin and Its Analogues in Food: Recent Updates on Sample Preparation and Analytical Methods Since 2012. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:12249-12269. [PMID: 36153990 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c04106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), found in various organisms including pufferfish, is an extremely potent marine toxin responsible for numerous food poisoning accidents. Due to its serious toxicity and public health threat, detecting TTX and its analogues in diverse food matrices with a simple, fast, efficient method has become a worldwide concern. This review summarizes the advances in sample preparation and analytical methods for the determination of TTX and its analogues, focusing on the latest development over the past five years. Current state-of-the-art technologies, such as solid-phase microextraction, online technology, novel injection technology, two-dimensional liquid chromatography, high-resolution mass spectrometry, newly developed lateral flow immunochromatographic strips, immunosensors, dual-mode aptasensors, and nanomaterials-based approaches, are thoroughly discussed. The advantages and limitations of different techniques, critical comments, and future perspectives are also proposed. This review is expected to provide rewarding insights to the future development and broad application of pretreatment and detection methods for TTX and its analogues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cong Hu
- School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - Yu Zhou
- Department of Pharmacy, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Yang-Jia-Yi Xiang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zhi-Fei Liu
- School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - Zhi-Hong Wang
- Department of Thyroid Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, China
| | - Xue-Song Feng
- School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
The Dynamics of Maximum Lengths for the Invasive Silver-Cheeked Toadfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus) in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/jmse10030387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The Eastern Mediterranean Sea is the most invaded sea on the planet, with 666 non-indigenous species now recorded in the region. However, not all of these become successful in their new environments. Success here is defined by wide geographical spread, increased abundances, and larger maximum sizes than their native range. The silver-cheeked toadfish Lagocephalus sceleratus (Gmelin 1789) was first recorded in the Mediterranean Sea in 2003. It has now spread to all corners of the basin and is increasingly abundant in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea where it reaches monstrous sizes compared to the maximum sizes reported from its native range. This contribution presents three well-documented new weight records from the Dodecanese Islands, Greece: one specimen weighing 8.5 kg from 2012, and two specimens weighing 8 and 9 kg, respectively, from 2021. The latter is also confirmed with other well-documented larger-size records, along with a physiological hypothesis suggesting how such large sizes are reached.
Collapse
|
12
|
Concentrations of Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and Its Analogue 4,9-Anhydro TTX in Different Tissues of the Silver-Cheeked Pufferfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus, Gmelin, 1789) Caught in the South-Eastern Mediterranean Sea, Lebanon. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14020123. [PMID: 35202150 PMCID: PMC8877804 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Pufferfishes are among the best-known marine organisms that accumulate marine biotoxins such as Tetrodotoxin (TTX). In the Mediterranean Sea, the silver-cheeked toadfish Lagocephalus sceleratus is the most reported TTX-bearer, causing many fatal and non-fatal cases. In Lebanon, no previous studies have measured TTX levels although the possibility of TTX-poisoning is high since L. sceleratus is caught in different sizes and can be mistaken with other small fishes. Hence, this study reports TTX and its analogue 4,9-anhydro TTX in L. sceleratus collected from Lebanese waters in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. The results show that TTX concentrations in fish tissues varied between 0.10 and 252.97 µg/g, while those of 4,9-anhydro TTX oscillated between 0.01 and 43.01 µg/g. Internal organs of L. sceleratus were the most toxic parts of its body, with the highest TTX levels found in gonads (mainly ovaries) and liver, followed by the muscles and skin with concentrations always exceeding the safety level. Toxicity fluctuations of L. sceleratus, its expansion, ecological and economic effects were also elucidated. Based on the present findings, it has been confirmed that L. sceleratus constitutes a health, ecological and economic risks, and therefore its trade in seafood markets should be banned to avoid any potential intoxication.
Collapse
|
13
|
Katikou P, Gokbulut C, Kosker AR, Campàs M, Ozogul F. An Updated Review of Tetrodotoxin and Its Peculiarities. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20010047. [PMID: 35049902 PMCID: PMC8780202 DOI: 10.3390/md20010047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a crystalline, weakly basic, colorless organic substance and is one of the most potent marine toxins known. Although TTX was first isolated from pufferfish, it has been found in numerous other marine organisms and a few terrestrial species. Moreover, tetrodotoxication is still an important health problem today, as TTX has no known antidote. TTX poisonings were most commonly reported from Japan, Thailand, and China, but today the risk of TTX poisoning is spreading around the world. Recent studies have shown that TTX-containing fish are being found in other regions of the Pacific and in the Indian Ocean, as well as the Mediterranean Sea. This review aims to summarize pertinent information available to date on the structure, origin, distribution, mechanism of action of TTX and analytical methods used for the detection of TTX, as well as on TTX-containing organisms, symptoms of TTX poisoning, and incidence worldwide.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Panagiota Katikou
- Ministry of Rural Development and Food, Directorate of Research, Innovation and Education, Hapsa & Karatasou 1, 54626 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
| | - Cengiz Gokbulut
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Balikesir University, Balikesir 10145, Turkey;
| | - Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain;
| | - Fatih Ozogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Christidis G, Mandalakis M, Anastasiou TI, Tserpes G, Peristeraki P, Somarakis S. Keeping Lagocephalus sceleratus off the Table: Sources of Variation in the Quantity of TTX, TTX Analogues, and Risk of Tetrodotoxication. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13120896. [PMID: 34941733 PMCID: PMC8706384 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The invasion of the tetrodotoxin (TTX)-bearing silver-cheeked toadfish and potential poisoning due to its consumption (tetrodotoxication) threatens public safety in the Mediterranean Sea. In this study, TTX and TTX analogues of Lagocephalus sceleratus (Gmelin, 1789) were measured using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in fish collected off the island of Crete (Southern Mediterranean). We tested the synergistic effect of a suite of factors potentially affecting toxins' levels and tetrodotoxication risk using general and generalized linear models, respectively. The type of tissue, geographic origin (Cretan Sea, Libyan Sea), sex, and fish maturity stage were significant predictors of toxin concentrations. Mean TTX was higher in gonads and lower in muscles, higher in the Libyan Sea and in female fish, and lower in juvenile (virgin) fish. The concentration of TTX was also significantly and positively correlated with the concentration of several TTX analogues (4-epiTTX, 4,9-anhydroTTX, 11-deoxyTTX, 5,11/6,11-dideoxyTTX, 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX, 11-norTTX-6-ol). The analysis showed that fish originating from the Libyan Sea had significantly higher probability to cause tetrodotoxication in case of consumption. The variability explained by the models developed in this study was relatively low, indicating that toxin levels are hard to predict and the consumption of L. sceleratus should therefore be avoided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Georgios Christidis
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece; (G.T.); (P.P.); (S.S.)
- Biology Department, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece
- Correspondence: (G.C.); (M.M.)
| | - Manolis Mandalakis
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Center of Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece;
- Correspondence: (G.C.); (M.M.)
| | - Thekla I. Anastasiou
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Center of Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece;
| | - George Tserpes
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece; (G.T.); (P.P.); (S.S.)
| | - Panagiota Peristeraki
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece; (G.T.); (P.P.); (S.S.)
| | - Stylianos Somarakis
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71500 Heraklion, Greece; (G.T.); (P.P.); (S.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Tetrodotoxins (TTXs) and Vibrio alginolyticus in Mussels from Central Adriatic Sea (Italy): Are They Closely Related? Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19060304. [PMID: 34070400 PMCID: PMC8228660 DOI: 10.3390/md19060304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxins (TTXs), potent neurotoxins, have become an increasing concern in Europe in recent decades, especially because of their presence in mollusks. The European Food Safety Authority published a Scientific Opinion setting a recommended threshold for TTX in mollusks of 44 µg equivalent kg−1 and calling all member states to contribute to an effort to gather data in order to produce a more exhaustive risk assessment. The objective of this work was to assess TTX levels in wild and farmed mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) harvested in 2018–2019 along the coastal area of the Marche region in the Central Adriatic Sea (Italy). The presence of Vibrio spp. carrying the non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) and polyketide synthase (PKS) genes, which are suspected to be involved in TTX biosynthesis, was also investigated. Out of 158 mussel samples analyzed by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS), 11 (7%) contained the toxins at detectable levels (8–26 µg kg−1) and 3 (2%) contained levels above the EFSA safety threshold (61–76 µg kg−1). Contaminated mussels were all harvested from natural beds in spring or summer. Of the 2019 samples, 70% of them contained V. alginolyticus strains with the NRPS and/or PKS genes. None of the strains containing NRPS and/or PKS genes showed detectable levels of TTXs. TTXs in mussels are not yet a threat in the Marche region nor in Europe, but further investigations are surely needed.
Collapse
|
16
|
First Detection of Tetrodotoxins in the Cotylean Flatworm Prosthiostomum trilineatum. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19010040. [PMID: 33477411 PMCID: PMC7830031 DOI: 10.3390/md19010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Several polyclad flatworm species are known to contain high levels of tetrodotoxin (TTX), but currently TTX-bearing flatworms seem to be restricted to specific Planocera lineages belonging to the suborder Acotylea. During our ongoing study of flatworm toxins, high concentrations of TTXs were detected for the first time in the flatworm Prosthiostomum trilineatum, suborder Cotylea, from the coastal area of Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan. Toxin levels were investigated by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), revealing that this species contains comparable concentrations of toxins as seen in planocerid flatworms such as Planocera multitentaculata. This finding indicated that there may be other species with significant levels of TTXs. The distribution of TTXs among other flatworm species is thus of great interest.
Collapse
|
17
|
Survey of Tetrodotoxin in New Zealand Bivalve Molluscan Shellfish over a 16-Month Period. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12080512. [PMID: 32784980 PMCID: PMC7472152 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12080512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a heat-stable neurotoxin typically associated with pufferfish intoxications. It has also been detected in shellfish from Japan, the United Kingdom, Greece, China, Italy, the Netherlands and New Zealand. A recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) scientific opinion concluded that a level of <0.044 mg TTX/kg in marine bivalves and gastropods, based on a 400 g portion size, does not result in adverse effects in humans. There have been no reports of human illness attributed to the consumption of New Zealand shellfish containing TTX. To obtain a greater understanding of its presence, a survey of non-commercial New Zealand shellfish was performed between December 2016 and March 2018. During this period, 766 samples were analysed from 8 different species. TTX levels were found to be low and similar to those observed in shellfish from other countries, except for pipi (Paphies australis), a clam species endemic to New Zealand. All pipi analysed as part of the survey were found to contain detectable levels of TTX, and pipi from a sampling site in Hokianga Harbour contained consistently elevated levels. In contrast, no TTX was observed in cockles from this same sampling site. No recreationally harvested shellfish species, including mussels, oysters, clams and tuatua, contained TTX levels above the recommended EFSA safe guidance level. The levels observed in shellfish were considerably lower than those reported in other marine organisms known to contain TTX and cause human intoxication (e.g., pufferfish). Despite significant effort, the source of TTX in shellfish, and indeed all animals, remains unresolved making it a difficult issue to understand and manage.
Collapse
|
18
|
Badawy MEI, Lotfy TMR, Shawir SMS. Facile synthesis and characterizations of antibacterial and antioxidant of chitosan monoterpene nanoparticles and their applications in preserving minced meat. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 156:127-136. [PMID: 32289415 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.04.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Chitosan nanoparticles loaded monoterpenes (ChMNPs) were prepared for preservation of minced meat from oxidative changes and growth of microorganisms. Four monoterpenes (limonene, linalool, menthol and thymol) were used to synthesis of four different types of ChMNPs. The physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles were analyzed using Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Zeta potential. SEM showed that the nanoparticles were nearly uniformly shape and size and the zeta potential values ranged between 0.0346 and -0.1690 mV. In vitro antimicrobial activity of Ch, monoterpenes (M) and ChMNPs against Gram (-) bacteria Escherichia coli (ATCC 8739) and Salmonella typhimurium (ATCC 1402) was analyzed using serial dilution test. E. coli was more susceptible than S. typhimurium to these products. ChMNPs exhibited good in vivo antimicrobial and antioxidant property for the minced meat samples during refrigerated storage. Verification of testing hypothesis was performed by assessing a DPPH radical scavenging activity, peroxide value and E. coli reduction of experimental nanoparticles. Significant effects of ChMNPs were observed at 1000 and 2500 mg/kg on the total number of E. coli in meat samples during storage time. The results indicate that ChMNPs can be used to preserve food as antimicrobial agents and to extend shelf life.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed E I Badawy
- Department of Pesticide Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, El-Shatby, Alexandria University, 21545 Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Tesby M R Lotfy
- Home Economics Department, Faculty of Specific Education, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Samar M S Shawir
- Home Economics Department, Faculty of Specific Education, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Determination of tetrodotoxin (TTX) levels in various tissues of the silver cheeked puffer fish (Lagocephalus sceleratus (Gmelin, 1789)) in Northern Cyprus Sea (Eastern Mediterranean). Toxicon 2020; 175:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
20
|
Tsagkaris A, Nelis J, Ross G, Jafari S, Guercetti J, Kopper K, Zhao Y, Rafferty K, Salvador J, Migliorelli D, Salentijn G, Campbell K, Marco M, Elliot C, Nielen M, Pulkrabova J, Hajslova J. Critical assessment of recent trends related to screening and confirmatory analytical methods for selected food contaminants and allergens. Trends Analyt Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2019.115688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
|
21
|
Biessy L, Boundy MJ, Smith KF, Harwood DT, Hawes I, Wood SA. Tetrodotoxin in marine bivalves and edible gastropods: A mini-review. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 236:124404. [PMID: 31545201 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Revised: 07/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin responsible for countless human intoxications and deaths around the world. The distribution of TTX and its analogues is diverse and the toxin has been detected in organisms from both marine and terrestrial environments. Increasing detections seafood species, such as bivalves and gastropods, has drawn attention to the toxin, reinvigorating scientific interest and regulatory concerns. There have been reports of TTX in 21 species of bivalves and edible gastropods from ten countries since the 1980's. While TTX is structurally dissimilar to saxitoxin (STX), another neurotoxin detected in seafood, it has similar sodium channel blocking action and potency and both neurotoxins have been shown to have additive toxicities. The global regulatory level for the STX group toxins applied to shellfish is 800 μg/kg. The presence of TTX in shellfish is only regulated in one country; The Netherlands, with a regulatory level of 44 μg/kg. Due to the recent interest surrounding TTX in bivalves, the European Food Safety Authority established a panel to assess the risk and regulation of TTX in bivalves, and their final opinion was that a concentration below 44 μg of TTX per kg of shellfish would not result in adverse human effects. In this article, we review current knowledge on worldwide TTX levels in edible gastropods and bivalves over the last four decades, the different methods of detection used, and the current regulatory status. We suggest research needs that will assist with knowledge gaps and ultimately allow development of robust monitoring and management protocols.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Biessy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | | | - Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | - Ian Hawes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand.
| | - Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Madejska A, Michalski M, Osek J. Marine Tetrodotoxin as a Risk for Human Health. J Vet Res 2019; 63:579-586. [PMID: 31934670 PMCID: PMC6950440 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2019-0060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a toxin mainly occurring naturally in contaminated puffer fish, which are a culinary delicacy in Japan. It is also detected in various marine organisms like globefish, starfish, sunfish, stars, frogs, crabs, snails, Australian blue-ringed octopuses, and bivalve molluscs. TTX is produced by marine bacteria that are consumed mainly by fish of the Tetraodontidae family and other aquatic animals. TTX poisoning through consuming marine snails has recently begun to occur over a wider geographical extent through Taiwan, China, and Europe. This neurotoxin causes food intoxication and poses an acute risk to public health. The aim of this review is to present the most recent information about TTX and its analogues with particular regard to toxicity, methods of analysis, and risk to humans of exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Madejska
- Department of Hygiene of Food of Animal Origin National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
| | - Mirosław Michalski
- Department of Hygiene of Food of Animal Origin National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
| | - Jacek Osek
- Department of Hygiene of Food of Animal Origin National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Guardone L, Maneschi A, Meucci V, Gasperetti L, Nucera D, Armani A. A Global Retrospective Study on Human Cases of Tetrodotoxin (TTX) Poisoning after Seafood Consumption. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2019.1669162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Guardone
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Andrea Maneschi
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Valentina Meucci
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Laura Gasperetti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Lazio e Toscana, Pisa, Italy
| | - Daniele Nucera
- Department of Agriculture, Forest and Food Science, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Andrea Armani
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Alves RN, Rambla-Alegre M, Braga AC, Maulvault AL, Barbosa V, Campàs M, Reverté L, Flores C, Caixach J, Kilcoyne J, Costa PR, Diogène J, Marques A. Bioaccessibility of lipophilic and hydrophilic marine biotoxins in seafood: An in vitro digestion approach. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 129:153-161. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
25
|
Silva M, Rodríguez I, Barreiro A, Kaufmann M, Neto AI, Hassouani M, Sabour B, Alfonso A, Botana LM, Vasconcelos V. Tetrodotoxins Occurrence in Non-Traditional Vectors of the North Atlantic Waters (Portuguese Maritime Territory, and Morocco Coast). Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E306. [PMID: 31146433 PMCID: PMC6628425 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent alkaloid typically from tropical ecosystems, but in the last decade its presence has been more pronounced in the temperate waters of the Atlantic. In its last scientific opinion, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) stressed the need for data regarding TTX prevalence in European waters. To address EFSA's concerns, benthic organisms such as mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms and fish with different feeding habits were collected along the Portuguese continental coast, islands (São Miguel, Azores, and Madeira) and the northwestern Moroccan coast. A total of 165 samples were analyzed by ultra high performance liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) and ultra high performance chromatography mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Geographical tendencies were detected as follows, by descending order: S. Miguel Island (Azores), Moroccan coast, Madeira Island and Portuguese continental coast. The toxin amounts detected were significant, above the Dutch limit value established in 2017, showing the importance and the need for continuity of these studies to gain more knowledge about the prevalence of these toxins, unraveling new vectors, in order to better assess human health risk. This work represents a general overview of new TTX bearers (7) most of them in gastropods (Patella depressa, Nucella lapillus, Onchidella celtica and Aplysia depilans), followed by echinoderms (Echinus esculentus and Ophidiaster ophidianus) and puffer fish Sphoeroides marmoratus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Silva
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - Inés Rodríguez
- Laboratorio CIFGA S.A., Plaza de Santo Domingo no. 20, 5a planta, 27001 Lugo, Spain.
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Aldo Barreiro
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - Manfred Kaufmann
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Marine Biology Station of Funchal, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Madeira, 9000-107 Funchal, Portugal.
- Center of Interdisciplinary Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira-CIIMAR-Madeira, Edif. Madeira Tecnopolo, Caminho da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal.
| | - Ana Isabel Neto
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
- cE3c/GBA-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes/Azorean Biodiversity Group and Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Azores, 9501-801 Ponta Delgada, São Miguel, Azores, Portugal.
| | - Meryem Hassouani
- Phycology Research Unit-Biotechnology, Ecosystems Ecology and Valorization Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences El Jadida, University Chouaib Doukkali, BP20 El Jadida, Morocco.
| | - Brahim Sabour
- Phycology Research Unit-Biotechnology, Ecosystems Ecology and Valorization Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences El Jadida, University Chouaib Doukkali, BP20 El Jadida, Morocco.
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Katikou P. Public Health Risks Associated with Tetrodotoxin and Its Analogues in European Waters: Recent Advances after The EFSA Scientific Opinion. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E240. [PMID: 31035492 PMCID: PMC6562576 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its analogues are naturally occurring toxins responsible worldwide for human intoxication cases and fatalities, mainly associated with pufferfish consumption. In the last decade, TTXs were detected in marine bivalves and gastropods from European waters. As TTXs are not regulated or monitored at EU level, their unexpected occurrence in shellfish raised concerns as a food safety hazard and revealed the necessity of a thorough assessment on the public health risks associated with their presence. For this reason, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) was requested by the European Commission to provide a scientific opinion, finally adopted in March 2017, according to which a provisional concentration below 44 μg TTX equivalents/kg shellfish meat, based on a large portion size of 400 g, was considered not to result in adverse effects in humans. The EFSA expert panel, however, recognized a number of shortcomings and uncertainties related to the unavailability of sufficient scientific data and provided relevant recommendations for future research to overcome these data gaps identified in order to further refine the risk assessment on TTXs. The present review aims to summarize the knowledge obtained towards addressing these recommendations in the two years following publication of the EFSA opinion, at the same time highlighting the points requiring further investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Panagiota Katikou
- Ministry of Rural Development and Food, Directorate General of Rural Development, Directorate of Research, Innovation and Education, Hapsa & Karatasou 1, 54626 Thessaloniki, Greece.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Zheng R, Guan Q, Zheng M, Huang Z, Huang H, Fu W, Lin S, Yang Y. Toxin and toxicity identification of mangrove horseshoe crab Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda collected from South China. Toxicon 2019; 161:23-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
28
|
Detection of tetrodotoxins in juvenile pufferfish Lagocephalus sceleratus (Gmelin, 1789) from the North Aegean Sea (Greece) by an electrochemical magnetic bead-based immunosensing tool. Food Chem 2019; 290:255-262. [PMID: 31000045 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.03.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Two small Lagocephalus sceleratus juveniles were captured in picarel targeting catches from North Aegean Sea (Greece) in the autumn of 2017. An electrochemical immunosensing tool using magnetic beads as immobilisation support was developed and applied to the rapid screening of tetrodotoxins (TTXs), potent neurotoxins that constitute a food safety hazard when present in seafood. This tool revealed the presence of TTXs in both individuals. Results were compared with those provided by mELISA and LC-HRMS, the latter confirming the presence of TTX. Some of the tissues contained TTX contents close to or above 2 mg/kg. L. sceleratus juveniles had been considered as non-toxic and, to our knowledge, this is the first report of high TTX levels in small L. sceleratus individuals. Such specimens can be mistaken with other edible species, posing a threat to consumers. The availability of low-cost and user-friendly tools for TTXs detection will contribute to guarantee seafood safety.
Collapse
|
29
|
Kosker AR, Özogul F, Ayas D, Durmus M, Ucar Y, Regenstein JM, Özogul Y. Tetrodotoxin levels of three pufferfish species (Lagocephalus sp.) caught in the North-Eastern Mediterranean sea. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 219:95-99. [PMID: 30529858 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) levels in Lagocephalus sceleratus (Silverstripe blaasop), Lagocephalus spadiceus (Half-smooth golden pufferfish) and Lagocephalus suezensis (Suez puffer) caught in Mersin Bay in the Northeastern Mediterranean Sea were analysed using Q-TOF LC/MS. Pufferfish were caught using trawl fishing, longlining and fishing line from December 2015 to October 2016. The TTX changes in the gonads, livers, intestines, skins and muscle tissues were evaluated according to sex and season. TTX levels for L. sceleratus and L. suezensis for all tissues were in the range of 0.69-35.6 μg/g and 0.67-3.09 μg/g, respectively. The highest TTX levels were observed in the gonads of female L. sceleratus caught in the autumn, and in the skin of L. suezensis caught in the spring but no quantifiable levels of TTX were found for L. spadiceus. In conclusion, L. sceleratus and L. suezensis species caught in the North-Eastern Mediterranean are toxic, and their consumption is unsafe.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Fatih Özogul
- Faculty of Fisheries, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey.
| | - Deniz Ayas
- Faculty of Fisheries, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Durmus
- Faculty of Fisheries, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Yılmaz Ucar
- Faculty of Fisheries, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey; Faculty of Marine Sciences, Ordu University, Ordu, Turkey
| | - Joe M Regenstein
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-7201, USA
| | - Yesim Özogul
- Faculty of Fisheries, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Tamele IJ, Silva M, Vasconcelos V. The Incidence of Marine Toxins and the Associated Seafood Poisoning Episodes in the African Countries of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E58. [PMID: 30669603 PMCID: PMC6357038 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The occurrence of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) and bacteria can be one of the great threats to public health due to their ability to produce marine toxins (MTs). The most reported MTs include paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), amnesic shellfish toxins (ASTs), diarrheic shellfish toxins (DSTs), cyclic imines (CIs), ciguatoxins (CTXs), azaspiracids (AZTs), palytoxin (PlTXs), tetrodotoxins (TTXs) and their analogs, some of them leading to fatal outcomes. MTs have been reported in several marine organisms causing human poisoning incidents since these organisms constitute the food basis of coastal human populations. In African countries of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, to date, only South Africa has a specific monitoring program for MTs and some other countries count only with respect to centers of seafood poisoning control. Therefore, the aim of this review is to evaluate the occurrence of MTs and associated poisoning episodes as a contribution to public health and monitoring programs as an MT risk assessment tool for this geographic region.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isidro José Tamele
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Institute of Biomedical Science Abel Salazar, University of Porto, R. Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University, Av. Julius Nyerere, n 3453, Campus Principal, Maputo 257, Mozambique.
| | - Marisa Silva
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Tamele IJ, Silva M, Vasconcelos V. The Incidence of Tetrodotoxin and Its Analogs in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:E28. [PMID: 30621279 PMCID: PMC6357042 DOI: 10.3390/md17010028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent marine neurotoxin with bacterial origin. To date, around 28 analogs of TTX are known, but only 12 were detected in marine organisms, namely TTX, 11-oxoTTX, 11-deoxyTTX, 11-norTTX-6(R)-ol, 11-norTTX-6(S)-ol, 4-epiTTX, 4,9-anhydroTTX, 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX, 4-CysTTX, 5-deoxyTTX, 5,11-dideoxyTTX, and 6,11-dideoxyTTX. TTX and its derivatives are involved in many cases of seafood poisoning in many parts of the world due to their occurrence in different marine species of human consumption such as fish, gastropods, and bivalves. Currently, this neurotoxin group is not monitored in many parts of the world including in the Indian Ocean area, even with reported outbreaks of seafood poisoning involving puffer fish, which is one of the principal TTX vectors know since Egyptian times. Thus, the main objective of this review was to assess the incidence of TTXs in seafood and associated seafood poisonings in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. Most reported data in this geographical area are associated with seafood poisoning caused by different species of puffer fish through the recognition of TTX poisoning symptoms and not by TTX detection techniques. This scenario shows the need of data regarding TTX prevalence, geographical distribution, and its vectors in this area to better assess human health risk and build effective monitoring programs to protect the health of consumers in Indian Ocean area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isidro José Tamele
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Institute of Biomedical Science Abel Salazar, University of Porto, R. Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
- Faculty of Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University, Av. Julius Nyerere, nr 3453, Campus Principal, 257 Maputo, Mozambique.
| | - Marisa Silva
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Walper SA, Lasarte Aragonés G, Sapsford KE, Brown CW, Rowland CE, Breger JC, Medintz IL. Detecting Biothreat Agents: From Current Diagnostics to Developing Sensor Technologies. ACS Sens 2018; 3:1894-2024. [PMID: 30080029 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.8b00420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Although a fundamental understanding of the pathogenicity of most biothreat agents has been elucidated and available treatments have increased substantially over the past decades, they still represent a significant public health threat in this age of (bio)terrorism, indiscriminate warfare, pollution, climate change, unchecked population growth, and globalization. The key step to almost all prevention, protection, prophylaxis, post-exposure treatment, and mitigation of any bioagent is early detection. Here, we review available methods for detecting bioagents including pathogenic bacteria and viruses along with their toxins. An introduction placing this subject in the historical context of previous naturally occurring outbreaks and efforts to weaponize selected agents is first provided along with definitions and relevant considerations. An overview of the detection technologies that find use in this endeavor along with how they provide data or transduce signal within a sensing configuration follows. Current "gold" standards for biothreat detection/diagnostics along with a listing of relevant FDA approved in vitro diagnostic devices is then discussed to provide an overview of the current state of the art. Given the 2014 outbreak of Ebola virus in Western Africa and the recent 2016 spread of Zika virus in the Americas, discussion of what constitutes a public health emergency and how new in vitro diagnostic devices are authorized for emergency use in the U.S. are also included. The majority of the Review is then subdivided around the sensing of bacterial, viral, and toxin biothreats with each including an overview of the major agents in that class, a detailed cross-section of different sensing methods in development based on assay format or analytical technique, and some discussion of related microfluidic lab-on-a-chip/point-of-care devices. Finally, an outlook is given on how this field will develop from the perspective of the biosensing technology itself and the new emerging threats they may face.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Scott A. Walper
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
| | - Guillermo Lasarte Aragonés
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
- College of Science, George Mason University Fairfax, Virginia 22030, United States
| | - Kim E. Sapsford
- OMPT/CDRH/OIR/DMD Bacterial Respiratory and Medical Countermeasures Branch, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland 20993, United States
| | - Carl W. Brown
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
- College of Science, George Mason University Fairfax, Virginia 22030, United States
| | - Clare E. Rowland
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
- National Research Council, Washington, D.C. 20036, United States
| | - Joyce C. Breger
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
| | - Igor L. Medintz
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Code 6900, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Finch SC, Boundy MJ, Harwood DT. The Acute Toxicity of Tetrodotoxin and Tetrodotoxin⁻Saxitoxin Mixtures to Mice by Various Routes of Administration. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E423. [PMID: 30360529 PMCID: PMC6266834 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin associated with human poisonings through the consumption of pufferfish. More recently, TTX has been identified in bivalve molluscs from diverse geographical environments, including Europe, and is therefore recognised as an emerging threat to food safety. A recent scientific opinion of the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain recognised the need for further data on the acute oral toxicity of TTX and suggested that, since saxitoxin (STX) and TTX had similar modes of action, it was possible that their toxicities were additive so could perhaps be combined to yield one health-based guideline value. The present study determined the toxicity of TTX by various routes of administration. The testing of three different mixtures of STX and TTX and comparing the experimentally determined values to those predicted on the basis of additive toxicity demonstrated that the toxicities of STX and TTX are additive. This illustrates that it is appropriate to treat TTX as a member of the paralytic shellfish group of toxins. Since the toxicity of TTX was found to be the same as STX by feeding, a molar toxicity equivalence factor of 1.0 for TTX can be applied.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Finch
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
| | | | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Giusti A, Ricci E, Guarducci M, Gasperetti L, Davidovich N, Guidi A, Armani A. Emerging risks in the European seafood chain: Molecular identification of toxic Lagocephalus spp. in fresh and processed products. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
35
|
Guardone L, Gasperetti L, Maneschi A, Ricci E, Susini F, Guidi A, Armani A. Toxic invasive pufferfish (Tetraodontidae family) along Italian coasts: Assessment of an emerging public health risk. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
36
|
A single run UPLC-MS/MS method for detection of all EU-regulated marine toxins. Talanta 2018; 189:622-628. [PMID: 30086968 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.07.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
A UPLC-MS/MS method has been developed for identification and quantification of hydrophilic and lipophilic marine toxins. The method included the determination of 14 toxins of STX group, 15 lipophilic toxins, 15 toxins of the TTX group and DA. LODs and LOQs for STX group were significantly improved in comparison to the official validated methods and at the same level than other UPLC-MS/MS published methods. The same for lipophilic toxins, with better LODs and LOQs than the EU official method. LOD and LOQ for DA were higher than those obtained with the EU official method. While for TTXs LOD and LOQ were comparable to other validated methods. Validation studies demonstrated acceptable method performance characteristics for linearity, and repeatability between-batch and within-batch. The study demonstrated that the UPLC-MS/MS method provides an excellent tool to determinate hydrophilic and lipophilic toxins and therefore it could be appropriate for routine testing and interlaboratory validation.
Collapse
|
37
|
Wunschel DS, Valenzuela BR, Kaiser BLD, Victry K, Woodruff D. Method development for comprehensive extraction and analysis of marine toxins: Liquid-liquid extraction and tandem liquid chromatography separations coupled to electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Talanta 2018; 187:302-307. [PMID: 29853051 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Revised: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A variety of toxins are produced by marine and freshwater microorganisms that present a threat to human health. These toxins have diverse chemical properties and specifically, a range of hydrophobicity. Methods for extraction and identification of these toxins are often geared toward specific classes of toxin depending on the sample type. There is a need for a general method of toxin extraction and identification for screening samples where the likely toxin content is not known a priori. We have applied a general method for metabolite extraction to toxin containing samples. This method was coupled with a simple dual liquid chromatography approach for separating a broad range of toxins. This liquid chromatography approach was coupled to triple quadrupole and quadrupole time-of-flight MS/MS platforms. The method was testing on a fish matrix for recovery of palytoxin as well as marine corals for detection of natural mixtures of palytoxin analogues. The recovery of palytoxin was found to produce a linear response (R2 of 0.95) when spiked into the fish matrix with a limit of quantitation of 2.5 ng/μL and recovery efficiency of 73% + /- 9%. The screening of corals revealed varying amount of palytoxin, and in one case, different palytoxin structural analogues. This demonstration illustrates the potential utility of this method for toxin extraction and detection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David S Wunschel
- Chemical and Biological Signature Sciences, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, PO Box 999 MS P 7-50, Richland, WA 99352, United States.
| | - Blandina R Valenzuela
- Chemical and Biological Signature Sciences, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, PO Box 999 MS P 7-50, Richland, WA 99352, United States
| | - Brooke L Deatherage Kaiser
- Chemical and Biological Signature Sciences, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, PO Box 999 MS P 7-50, Richland, WA 99352, United States
| | - Kristin Victry
- Chemical and Biological Signature Sciences, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, PO Box 999 MS P 7-50, Richland, WA 99352, United States
| | - Dana Woodruff
- Coastal Sciences, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 1529 West Sequim Bay Rd, Sequim WA 98382, United States
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
First report on TTX levels of the yellow spotted pufferfish (Torquigener flavimaculosus) in the Mediterranean Sea. Toxicon 2018; 148:101-106. [PMID: 29698756 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The differences of tetrodotoxin (TTX) levels in various parts of pufferfish (Torquigener flavimaculosus) were examined in conjunction with the seasonal and sexual variations. The TTX levels in gonads, liver, intestines, skin and muscle tissue were determined using the Q-TOF LC/MS. Instrumental analysis revealed that all examined tissues from T. flavimaculosus contained high TTX concentrations. TTX levels in the gonads, liver, intestines, skin and muscle tissue of pufferfish were within the range of 5.03-100.71, 7.04-106.80, 12.59-86.30, 33.95-139.88 and 15.88-86.07 (μg/g), respectively. It was determined that in all seasons, except for summer, female individuals had higher TTX levels than males. Among all seasons, the highest level of TTX was found in winter and the lowest in autumn. Consequently, T. flavimaculosus is a highly toxic pufferfish that is dangerous for human consumption and should not be consumed under any circumstances.
Collapse
|
39
|
Katikou P, Vlamis A. Tetrodotoxins: recent advances in analysis methods and prevalence in European waters. Curr Opin Food Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2017.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
40
|
Rambla-Alegre M, Reverté L, Del Río V, de la Iglesia P, Palacios O, Flores C, Caixach J, Campbell K, Elliott CT, Izquierdo-Muñoz A, Campàs M, Diogène J. Evaluation of tetrodotoxins in puffer fish caught along the Mediterranean coast of Spain. Toxin profile of Lagocephalus sceleratus. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2017; 158:1-6. [PMID: 28587910 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Although consumption of Tetraodontidae species is prohibited in the EU, intoxications are still reported. The evaluation of tetrodotoxins (TTXs) by mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS and LC-HRMS) and a screening immunoassay (mELISA) in tetraodontid fishes caught along the Western Mediterranean Sea revealed high concentrations of TTXs in Lagocephalus sceleratus while no TTXs were identified in L. lagocephalus and Sphoeroides pachygaster individuals. The high TTXs content found in the L. sceleratus analysed herein demonstrate the occurrence of highly toxic puffer fish in the Western Mediterranean Sea. Being L. sceleratus a recent invasive species in the Mediterranean, surveillance, risk assessment and risk management measures are necessary. The strategy used within this research work could be a valuable tool for future food safety monitoring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rambla-Alegre
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou, km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain.
| | - Laia Reverté
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou, km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Vanessa Del Río
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou, km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Pablo de la Iglesia
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou, km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Oscar Palacios
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory/Organic Pollutants, IDAEA-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cintia Flores
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory/Organic Pollutants, IDAEA-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep Caixach
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory/Organic Pollutants, IDAEA-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Katrina Campbell
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, David Keir Building, Stranmillis Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland BT9 5AG, UK
| | - Christopher T Elliott
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, David Keir Building, Stranmillis Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland BT9 5AG, UK
| | - Andrés Izquierdo-Muñoz
- Centro de Investigación Marina de Santa Pola (CIMAR), Universidad de Alicante-Ayuntamiento de Santa Pola, 03130 Santa Pola, Alicante, Spain
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou, km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Jorge Diogène
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou, km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Reverté L, Campbell K, Rambla-Alegre M, Elliott CT, Diogène J, Campàs M. Immunosensor array platforms based on self-assembled dithiols for the electrochemical detection of tetrodotoxins in puffer fish. Anal Chim Acta 2017; 989:95-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
|
42
|
Shang F, Liu Y, Wang S, Hu Y, Guo Z. Electrochemiluminescence Immunosensor Based on Functionalized Graphene/Fe3
O4
-Au Magnetic Capture Probes for Ultrasensitive Detection of Tetrodotoxin. ELECTROANAL 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201700223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fang Shang
- Faculty of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory Base of Novel Functional Materials and Preparation Science; Ningbo University; Ningbo 315211 People's Republic of China, Fax: +86 574 87609987
| | - Yuan Liu
- Faculty of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory Base of Novel Functional Materials and Preparation Science; Ningbo University; Ningbo 315211 People's Republic of China, Fax: +86 574 87609987
| | - Sui Wang
- Faculty of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory Base of Novel Functional Materials and Preparation Science; Ningbo University; Ningbo 315211 People's Republic of China, Fax: +86 574 87609987
| | - Yufang Hu
- Faculty of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory Base of Novel Functional Materials and Preparation Science; Ningbo University; Ningbo 315211 People's Republic of China, Fax: +86 574 87609987
| | - Zhiyong Guo
- Faculty of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory Base of Novel Functional Materials and Preparation Science; Ningbo University; Ningbo 315211 People's Republic of China, Fax: +86 574 87609987
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Tetrodotoxin-Producing Bacteria: Detection, Distribution and Migration of the Toxin in Aquatic Systems. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9050166. [PMID: 28513564 PMCID: PMC5450714 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9050166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Revised: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
This review is devoted to the marine bacterial producers of tetrodotoxin (TTX), a potent non-protein neuroparalytic toxin. In addition to the issues of the ecology and distribution of TTX-producing bacteria, this review examines issues relating to toxin migration from bacteria to TTX-bearing animals. It is shown that the mechanism of TTX extraction from toxin-producing bacteria to the environment occur through cell death, passive/active toxin excretion, or spore germination of spore-forming bacteria. Data on TTX microdistribution in toxic organs of TTX-bearing animals indicate toxin migration from the digestive system to target organs through the transport system of the organism. The role of symbiotic microflora in animal toxicity is also discussed: despite low toxin production by bacterial strains in laboratory conditions, even minimal amounts of TTX produced by intestinal microflora of an animal can contribute to its toxicity. Special attention is paid to methods of TTX detection applicable to bacteria. Due to the complexity of toxin detection in TTX-producing bacteria, it is necessary to use several methods based on different methodological approaches. Issues crucial for further progress in detecting natural sources of TTX investigation are also considered.
Collapse
|
44
|
Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Arnich N, Benford D, Botana L, Viviani B, Arcella D, Binaglia M, Horvath Z, Steinkellner H, van Manen M, Petersen A. Risks for public health related to the presence of tetrodotoxin (TTX) and TTX analogues in marine bivalves and gastropods. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04752. [PMID: 32625458 PMCID: PMC7010203 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its analogues are produced by marine bacteria and have been detected in marine bivalves and gastropods from European waters. The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of TTX and TTX analogues in marine bivalves and gastropods. The Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain reviewed the available literature but did not find support for the minimum lethal dose for humans of 2 mg, mentioned in various reviews. Some human case reports describe serious effects at a dose of 0.2 mg, corresponding to 4 μg/kg body weight (bw). However, the uncertainties on the actual exposure in the studies preclude their use for derivation of an acute reference dose (ARfD). Instead, a group ARfD of 0.25 μg/kg bw, applying to TTX and its analogues, was derived based on a TTX dose of 25 μg/kg bw at which no apathy was observed in an acute oral study with mice, applying a standard uncertainty factor of 100. Estimated relative potencies for analogues are lower than that of TTX but are associated with a high degree of uncertainty. Based on the occurrence data submitted to EFSA and reported consumption days only, average and P95 exposures of 0.00-0.09 and 0.00-0.03 μg/kg bw, respectively, were calculated. Using a large portion size of 400 g bivalves and P95 occurrence levels of TTX, with exception of oysters, the exposure was below the group ARfD in all consumer groups. A concentration below 44 μg TTX equivalents/kg shellfish meat, based on a large portion size of 400 g, was considered not to result in adverse effects in humans. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS) methods are the most suitable for identification and quantification of TTX and its analogues, with LOQs between 1 and 25 μg/kg.
Collapse
|
45
|
The association of bacterial C 9-based TTX-like compounds with Prorocentrum minimum opens new uncertainties about shellfish seafood safety. Sci Rep 2017; 7:40880. [PMID: 28106083 PMCID: PMC5247728 DOI: 10.1038/srep40880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2012, Tetrodotoxin (TTX) was identified in mussels and linked to the presence of Prorocentrum minimum (P. minimum) in Greece. The connexion between TTX and P. minimum was further studied in this paper. First, the presence of TTX-producer bacteria, Vibrio and Pseudomonas spp, was confirmed in Greek mussels. In addition these samples showed high activity as inhibitors of sodium currents (INa). P. minimum was before associated with neurotoxic symptoms, however, the nature and structure of toxins produced by this dinoflagellate remains unknown. Three P. minimum strains, ccmp1529, ccmp2811 and ccmp2956, growing in different conditions of temperature, salinity and light were used to study the production of toxic compounds. Electrophysiological assays showed no effect of ccmp2811 strain on INa, while ccmp1529 and ccmp2956 strains were able to significantly reduce INa in the same way as TTX. In these samples two new compounds, m/z 265 and m/z 308, were identified and characterized by liquid chromatography tandem high-resolution mass spectrometry. Besides, two TTX-related bacteria, Roseobacter and Vibrio sp, were observed. These results show for the first time that P. minimum produce TTX-like compounds with a similar ion pattern and C9-base to TTX analogues and with the same effect on INa.
Collapse
|
46
|
Bane V, Hutchinson S, Sheehan A, Brosnan B, Barnes P, Lehane M, Furey A. LC-MS/MS method for the determination of tetrodotoxin (TTX) on a triple quadruple mass spectrometer. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016; 33:1728-1740. [PMID: 27619502 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2016.1235801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), often referred to as the 'puffer fish' poison, is a marine toxin and it has been identified as the agent responsible for many food poisoning incidents around the world. It is a neurotoxin that blocks voltage-gated sodium channels, resulting in respiratory paralysis and even death in severe cases. It is known to occur in many different species of fish and other organisms. The toxin is mainly found in the Southeast Asia region. Worryingly, TTX is starting to appear in European waters. It is suspected that this is a consequence of Lessepsian migration, also known as the Erythrean invasion. Therefore, straightforward and reliable extraction and analytical methods are now urgently required to monitor seafood of European origin for TTX. This paper provides a versatile, dependable and robust method for the analysis of TTX in puffer fish and trumpet shellfish using LC-MS/MS. A three-stage approach was implemented involving: (1) the screening of samples using fast multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mass spectral analysis to identify quickly positive samples on a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (QqQMS/MS), the API 3000; (2) a Fourier-transform (FT)-MS full-scan analysis of positive samples to collect qualitative data; and (3) a method with a longer chromatography run to identify and quantitate the positive samples using the QqQMS. The quantitative LC-QqQMS method delivered excellent linearity for solvent-based standards (0.01-7.5 µg ml-1; R2 ≥ 0.9968) as well as for matrix-matched standards (0.05-37.50 µg g-1; R2 ≥ 0.9869). Good inter-day repeatability was achieved for all the relevant analytes with %RSD values (n = 9) ranging from 1.11% to 4.97% over a concentration range of 0.01-7.5 µg ml-1. A sample clean-up procedure for the puffer fish and trumpet shellfish was developed to ensure acceptable and reproducible recoveries to enable accurate and precise determination of TTX in a myriad of tissues types. Blank mackerel matrix was used for the TTX standard spiking studies in order to calculate the recoveries of the toxin during the extraction procedure. The recovery was 61.17% ± 5.42% for the extraction protocol. MS/MS studies were performed on a linear-trap quadruple-Orbitrap mass spectrometer (LTQ-Orbitrap) to obtain high-mass-accuracy data of the target analytes and their characteristic fragment ions in the puffer fish and trumpet shellfish samples. This facilitated identification of TTX and its associated analogues. These high-mass-accuracy studies facilitated the development of a rapid MRM-based quantitative method for TTX determination on the LC-QqQMS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vaishali Bane
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| | - Sharon Hutchinson
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| | - Aisling Sheehan
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| | - Brid Brosnan
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| | - Paul Barnes
- b Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute - Stormont , Belfast , UK
| | - Mary Lehane
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| | - Ambrose Furey
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Bane V, Brosnan B, Barnes P, Lehane M, Furey A. High-resolution mass spectrometry analysis of tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its analogues in puffer fish and shellfish. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016; 33:1468-89. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2016.1218070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vaishali Bane
- Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Physical Sciences, Cork Institute of Technology, Cork, Ireland
| | - Brid Brosnan
- Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Physical Sciences, Cork Institute of Technology, Cork, Ireland
| | - Paul Barnes
- Agri-food and Biosciences Institute, Belfast, UK
| | - Mary Lehane
- Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Physical Sciences, Cork Institute of Technology, Cork, Ireland
| | - Ambrose Furey
- Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Physical Sciences, Cork Institute of Technology, Cork, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Toxicity of the Lessepsian pufferfish Lagocephalus sceleratus from eastern Mediterranean coasts of Turkey and species identification by rapid PCR amplification. Eur Food Res Technol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-016-2721-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
49
|
Bacterial diversity and tetrodotoxin analysis in the viscera of the gastropods from Portuguese coast. Toxicon 2016; 119:186-93. [PMID: 27312988 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2016] [Revised: 04/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
To trace the pathway of tetrodotoxin (TTX) producing microorganism in the Atlantic coast of Portugal, culture-dependent evaluation of the bacterial isolates from the viscera of the gastropods Monodonta lineata, Gibbula umbilicalis, Nucella lapillus and Patella intermedia, and from the environmental samples (biofilm and surrounding sea water) was carried out. Samples were collected from eight different coastal locations of Northern Portugal. A total of 311 isolates were identified. The observed bacterial diversity was distributed over five different classes (Gammaproteobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, Flavobacteria, Bacilli and Actinobacteria) with the greatest number of 16S rRNA gene sequence derived from the Gammaproteobacteria (75%). Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene showed that bacterial isolates were highly diverse and most of which were found in other marine environment. Among the different species isolated, Vibrio was found abundant. Eventhough TTX was not detected (UPLC-MS/MS) in the isolates from this study, PCR screening identified some natural product biosynthesis genes (PKS and NRPS) involved in its assembly. Further PCR screening of the TTX producing two ATCC Vibrio sp. reveals that NRPS might be involved in the biosynthesis of TTX through the incorporation of arginine.
Collapse
|
50
|
Kosker AR, Özogul F, Durmus M, Ucar Y, Ayas D, Regenstein JM, Özogul Y. Tetrodotoxin levels in pufferfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus) caught in the Northeastern Mediterranean Sea. Food Chem 2016; 210:332-7. [PMID: 27211655 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.04.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2016] [Revised: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The toxicity of tetrodotoxin (TTX) in pufferfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus) from Mersin Bay in the Northeastern Mediterranean Sea was measured using a mouse bioassay (MBA) and LC-MS-MS. Pufferfish were caught by trawl fishing, longlining and fishing line from December 2012 to October 2013. Changes in the levels of TTX in the gonads, livers, intestines, skins and muscles as a function of season and sex were determined. The gonads of female fish were toxic in all seasons (>2μg/g), whereas the gonads of male fish were only toxic in the spring and autumn. The highest TTX levels in gonads, livers, intestines and skins of female fish were 52.1, 46.2, 7.64 and 3.43μg/g, respectively, using LC-MS-MS. The TTX level in the muscle of female fish in winter was 2.83μg/g but was otherwise below the toxic limit. Consequently, it can be dangerous to consume pufferfish, including the edible muscle, from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Fatih Özogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey.
| | - Mustafa Durmus
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Yılmaz Ucar
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Deniz Ayas
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Joe M Regenstein
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-7201, USA
| | - Yesim Özogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|