Aflatoxins in hazelnuts and dried figs: Occurrence and exposure assessment

Determination and risk assessment of aflatoxin B1 in the kernel of imported raw hazelnuts from Eastern Azerbaijan Province of Iran

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is widespread and seriously threatens public health worldwide. This study aimed to investigate AFB1 in imported hazelnut samples in northwest of Iran (Eastern Azerbaijan Province) using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a Fluorescent Detector (HPLC-FLD). In all tested samples AFB1 was detected. The mean concentration of AFB1 was 4.20 μg/kg and ranged from 3.145 to 8.13 μg/kg. All samples contained AFB1 levels within the maximum acceptable limit except for one sample. Furthermore, the human health risk assessment of AFB1 from consuming imported hazelnuts by Iranian children and adults was evaluated based on the margin of exposure (MoE) and quantitative liver cancer risk approaches. The MoE mean for children was 2529.76, while for adults, it was 8854.16, indicating a public health concern. The present study found that the risk of developing liver cancer among Iranian children was 0.11100736 per 100,000 people, and in the Iranian adult population was 0.0314496 cancers per 100,000 people. Since environmental conditions potentially affect aflatoxin levels in nuts, countries are advised to monitor aflatoxin contents in imported nuts, especially from countries with a conducive climate for mold growth.

Total aflatoxin and ochratoxin A levels, dietary exposure and cancer risk assessment in dried fruits in Türkiye

This study aimed to measure total aflatoxin (AF) (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) levels in dried fruit samples and to evaluate the potential dietary exposure and cancer risk to these mycotoxins in Kayseri/Türkiye. Dried fruit samples were collected between April-May 2021. A total of 11 dried grapes and apricot samples, 7 dried fig and plum samples were collected. Total aflatoxins and OTA in dried fruits were determined by ELISA method. Then, the margin of exposure (MOE) and cancer risk were calculated. Total AF was detected in dried fruit samples between 42.86%, and 100%. Between 18.18% and 57.14% of samples exceeded the European Commission (EC) limits for total AF. Moreover, OTA was detected in all samples. Between 71.43% and 100% of samples exceeded the EC limits for OTA. Cancer risk due to OTA exposure was higher than total AF and it was determined that OTA exposure could pose a risk for public health (MOE < 10,000). Although mycotoxin exposure seems to be low due to the low consumption of dried fruit in Türkiye, the risk of exposure and cancer may increase because of complying with the recommendations of the dietary guidelines. The findings provide new insights into exposure to total AF and OTA through the consumption of dried fruit.

Hazards reported on food of plant origin in the Rapid Alert System for Foodand Feed (RASFF) from 1997 to 2021 and their occurrence, prevention and reduction

Between 1997 and 2021 notifications for foods of plant origin covered 44.6% of all notifications in the EU Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF). A two-way joining cluster analysis for notifications on plants reported in the RASFF in 1997-2021 was carried out. The following variables were considered: hazard, product category and country of origin in relation to year of notification. In the period studied mainly mycotoxins, pesticide residues and pathogenic micro-organisms were reported. The most frequently notified product categories were nuts and seeds, fruit and vegetables and herbs and spices. The submitted products originated from Asian, African and South-American countries. The study findings were followed by a literature analysis outlining the occurrence and prevention and reduction possibilities of the mentioned hazards, which can be used in these countries. Attention was drawn to the need to carry out controls at EU border inspection posts, monitor and update hazard limits and improve the rapid exchange of information and response to detected hazards.

Global systematic review and meta-analysis on prevalence and concentration of aflatoxins in peanuts oil and probabilistic risk assessment

Exposure to mycotoxins in food is largely unavoidable, and concerns about their health effects are growing. Consumption of vegetable oils such as peanuts oil has increased, hence several studies have been conducted on concentration of aflatoxins (AFs) in peanuts oil. Search was performed in Scopus and PubMed databases on prevalence and concentration of AFs in peanuts oil from 1 January 2005 to 15 April 29, 2022. Prevalence and concentration of AFs in peanuts oil was meta-analyzed based on country and type of AFs subgroups. In addition, health risk was calculated using monte carlo simulation method. Pooled prevalence of AFB1 in peanuts oil was 47.9%; AFB2, 46.45%; AFG1, 46.92% and AFG2, 54.01%. The Overall prevalence of AFTs was 49.30%, 95%CI (35.80-62.84%). Pooled concentration of AFB1 in peanuts oil was 2.30 μg/kg; AFB2, 0.77 μg/kg; AFG1, 0.07 μg/kg; AFG1, 0.28 μg/kg. The sort of country based on mean of MOEs in the adults consumers was Japan (47,059) > China (17,670) > Ethiopia (7,398) > Sudan (6,974) > USA (1,012) and sort of country based on mean of MOEs in the children was Japan (120,994) > China (46,991) > Ethiopia (19,251) > Sudan (18,200) > USA (2,620). Therefore, adults consumers were in considerable health risk in Ethiopia, Sudan and USA and for children in USA (MOE < 10,000).

Aflatoxins in food products consumed in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: A preliminary dietary risk assessment

Aflatoxins (AFs) are hepatotoxic, mutagenic, genotoxic, and immunosuppressive toxins. Several food commodities consumed in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) are susceptible to AF contamination because of improper storage practices and the warm and humid climate of the country. Therefore, the occurrence of AFs in 2388 food samples was measured and the estimated daily intake (EDI) of AFs in Saudi adults was assessed. The risks of AFB1 exposure were characterized using the margin of exposure (MoE) approach and by estimating the number of possible hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cases in the KSA. The results revealed that 12.1% of the analyzed samples were contaminated with AFs and the highest concentration of total AFs was observed in the nut and seed group. The mean EDI of AFB1 was estimated to be 0.21 and 0.55 ng/kg body weight (bw)/day for the lower bound (LB) and upper bound (UB) scenarios, respectively. The MoEs were estimated to be 1902.4 and 722.1, while the estimated liver cancer risk ranged from 0.002 to 0.008 cancer cases/year/100,000 persons. Based on the study's findings, contamination with AFs in the KSA is low; however, AFs are considered potent genotoxic contaminants, and therefore, exposure through food should be kept as low as possible.

Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Dried Fruits Worldwide, with a Focus on Aflatoxins and Ochratoxin A: A Review

Dried fruits are popular and nutritious snacks consumed worldwide due to their long shelf life and concentrated nutrient content. However, fruits can be contaminated with various toxigenic fungal species during different stages, including cultivation, harvesting, processing, drying, and storage. Consequently, these products may contain high levels of mycotoxins. This risk is particularly pronounced in developed countries due to the impact of climate change. Several factors contribute to mycotoxin production, including the type of fruit, geographical location, climate conditions, harvest treatments, and storage management practices. The main mycotoxins in dried fruits are aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA), which can induce human health problems and economic losses. Mycotoxin contamination can vary significantly depending on the geographic origin of dried fruits (vine fruits, figs, dates, apricots, prunes, and mulberries). The aim of this review was to fill the knowledge gap by consolidating data from various regions to understand the global picture and identify regions with higher contamination risks. By consolidating research from various origins and stages of the supply chain, the review intends to shed light on potential contamination events during pre-harvest, drying, storage, and trading, while also highlighting the effects of storage conditions and climate change on mycotoxin contamination.

Occurrence and Exposure Assessment of Major Mycotoxins in Foodstuffs from Algeria

Cereal-based products, nuts and dried fruits are staple foods for the Algerian population. However, these foodstuffs may be sources of harmful mycotoxins, with negative impacts on human health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the occurrences and levels of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA) in 198 samples of nuts, dried fruits and cereal products commercialized in Algeria, as well as to calculate the estimated daily intakes (EDIs). Aflatoxins were found in 26.2% of the nut samples (in peanuts and almonds, but not in walnuts), 38.7% of the dried fruit samples (in dried figs, dates and bradj pastries) and 47.9% of the cereal-based products (in rechta noodles and metlou bread, but not in couscous), with mean concentrations ranging from 0.03 to 0.49 μg/kg. OTA occurred in 16.9% of the cereal-based samples, averaging 0.15 μg/kg, but it was not detected in nuts or dried fruits. The incidence of DON in the cereal-based products was 85.9% on average, with a mean concentration from 90 to 123 μg/kg. ZEA mycotoxin was not detected in any samples. Four peanut samples exceeded the EU maximum level for aflatoxin B1 set at 2 μg/kg, while three of them surpassed the maximum level for the sum of aflatoxins (4 μg/kg). Traditional foods such as bradj, rechta and metlou were significant sources of aflatoxins, with MOE (margin of exposure) values ranging from 648 to 9333, indicating a potential risk for the Algerian population.

Biocontrol Potential of Antagonistic Yeasts on In Vitro and In Vivo Aspergillus Growth and Its AFB1 Production

Aspergillus flavus is a major aflatoxin B₁, posing significant health concerns to humans, crops, and producer fungi. Due to the undesirable consequences of the usage of synthetic fungicides, biological control using yeasts has gained more attention. In this study, eight isolates of epiphytic yeasts belonging to Moesziomyces sp., Meyerozyma sp. and Metschnikowia sp., which have been identified as antagonists, were isolated from different plants, including grapes, blueberries, hawthorns, hoşkıran, beans and grape leaf. While volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by Moesziomyces bullatus DN-FY, Metschnikowia aff. pulcherrima DN-MP and Metschnikowia aff. pulcherrima 32-AMM reduced in vitro A. flavus mycelial growth and sporulation, only VOCs produced by Metschnikowia aff. fructicola 1-UDM were found to be effective at reducing in vitro AFB₁ production. All yeasts reduced the mycelial growth of A. flavus by 76-91%, while AFB₁ production reduced to 1.26-10.15 ng/g and the control plates' growth was 1773 ng/g. The most effective yeast, Metschnikowia aff. Pulcherrima DN-HS, reduced Aspergillus flavus growth and aflatoxin B₁ production on hazelnuts. The AFB₁ content on hazelnuts reduced to 333.01 ng/g from 536.74 ng/g. To our knowledge, this is the first report of yeasts isolated from plants being tested as potential biological control agents to reduce AFB₁ production on hazelnuts.

Food aflatoxin exposure assessment in Sichuan Province, China

Aflatoxins (AFs) are frequent contaminants in crops worldwide and can cause adverse health effects in exposed humans. Since foods AFs (AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁, AFG₂) contamination in Sichuan Province are unexplored, we conducted a study to assess AFs exposure in the population. In total, 318 samples, including grains, red chilli, red chilli powder, and vegetable protein beverages, were collected from 13 cities of Sichuan Province, China, in 2022. AFs were detected in all types of foods except for wheat flour, the highest incidence was found in red chilli powder (75.0%). The concentrations of AF_tot (the total aflatoxins) ranged between ND (not detected) and 54.20 μg kg^-1. It was observed that the AFs profile was dominated by AFB₁. The AFB₁ content ranged from ND to 52.60 μg kg^-1 across food types. According to EU maximum limits (ML) of AFs, 2.8% of samples exceeded the AF_tot limits. For AFB₁, 0.4% and 4.3% of samples exceeded the China and EU limits, respectively. In this study, packaging types and sampling sites were selected as parameters influence food aflatoxin contamination. Nevertheless, there was no significant difference between different samples. According to exposure assessment and risk characterization, AF_tot daily exposure was shown to be 0.263 and 283.936 ng kg^-1 bw for the lower and upper exposure. The MOE value derived from consumption grains and red chilli pepper products were generally bellow 10 000, and liver cancer cases based on these two foods consumption could range from < 0.001 to 0.16 cases per year/10 000 persons.

DEFHAZ: A Mechanistic Weather-Driven Predictive Model for Diaporthe eres Infection and Defective Hazelnut Outbreaks

The browning of the internal tissues of hazelnut kernels, which are visible when the nuts are cut in half, as well as the discolouration and brown spots on the kernel surface, are important defects that are mainly attributed to Diaporthe eres. The knowledge regarding the Diaporthe eres infection cycle and its interaction with hazelnut crops is incomplete. Nevertheless, we developed a mechanistic model called DEFHAZ. We considered georeferenced data on the occurrence of hazelnut defects from 2013 to 2020 from orchards in the Caucasus region and Turkey, supported by meteorological data, to run and validate the model. The predictive model inputs are the hourly meteorological data (air temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall), and the model output is the cumulative index (Dh-I), which we computed daily during the growing season till ripening/harvest time. We established the probability function, with a threshold of 1% of defective hazelnuts, to define the defect occurrence risk. We compared the predictions at early and full ripening with the observed data at the corresponding crop growth stages. In addition, we compared the predictions at early ripening with the defects observed at full ripening. Overall, the correct predictions were >80%, with <16% false negatives, which confirmed the model accuracy in predicting hazelnut defects, even in advance of the harvest. The DEFHAZ model could become a valuable support for hazelnut stakeholders.

Simultaneous Detection of Ochratoxin A and Aflatoxins in Industrial and Traditional Red and isot Pepper Flakes along with Dietary Exposure Risk Assessment

This study focused on the co-occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in traditionally and industrially dried red pepper flakes (DRPFs) and isot pepper flakes (IPFs). Following the multitoxin immunoaffinity column (IAC) clean-up, high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) was used to quantify AFs and OTA. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) values were 0.11 and 0.18 μg kg^-1 (AFB₁), 0.04 and 0.08 μg kg^-1 (AFB₂), 0.13 and 0.18 μg kg^-1 (AFG₁), 0.04 and 0.11 μg kg^-1 (AFG₂), and 0.10 and 0.21 μg kg^-1 (OTA), respectively. AFB_1, AFB₂, AFG₁, and OTA were found to be positive in 93, 74, 17, and 94% of all samples, respectively. The contamination levels in positive samples ranged from 0.23 to 38.69, 0.04 to 2.14, 0.13 to 0.88, and 0.18 to 52.19 μg kg^-1 for AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁, and OTA, respectively, while no AFG₂ was found above the detection limit (0.04 μg kg^-1). None of the industrial isot peppers exceeded the European Union limits, while the levels of AFB₁ (5 μg kg^-1), total AFs (10 μg kg^-1), and OTA (20 μg kg^-1) of the traditional peppers were above the limit by 30% (16/54), 26% (14/54), and 4% (2/54), respectively. Co-occurrence of AFB₁-AFB₂-OTA was the most frequent, accounting for 54% (29/54) of all samples. At the upper bound (UB), estimated average exposure to AFB₁, total AFs, and OTA was determined to be 0.175, 0.189, and 0.124 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1 in all samples, respectively. The margin of exposure (MoE) value of AFB₁ and total AFs was found to be 977 and 909, indicating high health concerns compared to OTA (MoE >10,000). AFB₁ and total AFs may result in 0.0058 and 0.0062 liver cancer cases/100,000 person/year at UB, respectively, and weekly OTA exposure was 0.868 ng kg^-1 bw, well below the provisional tolerable weekly intake, hence not of health concern. AFs exposure could endanger health, whereas OTA posed no toxicological concerns through dried red pepper consumption.

Presence of aflatoxins in hazelnut paste in Turkey and a risk assessment study

Two hundred and two hazelnut paste samples from various hazelnut processing plants in the Black Sea Region of Turkey were analysed for the incidence of aflatoxins (AFs) by liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection (LC-FLD). All 202 (100%) hazelnut paste samples were contaminated with various AFs ranged from 0.17 to 12.96 µg kg^-1. AF contamination level of four (1.98%) samples exceeded legal limits. Risk assessment for hazelnut paste was determined by using AF incidence results, and the margin of exposure (MOE) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) risk approach were applied. For the adult Turkish population (15+ years age group), the average lower bound (LB) and upper bound (UB) exposure levels for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total aflatoxins (AFT) were 0.0106-0.0107 ng kg^-1 body weight (bw) per day and 0.0250 ng kg^-1 bw per day, respectively. MOE estimates for mean and 95th percentile exposures to AFB1 for hazelnut paste were higher than 10,000, which indicates no potential health concern for Turkish adults. HCC for the Turkish population was 0.00023 cases per 100,000 people per year. The study indicates that Turkish population is not under this toxicological risk when consuming hazelnut paste containing food products.

Fungi Occurrence in Ready-to-Eat Hazelnuts (Corylus avellana) From Different Boreal Hemisphere Areas

The present study evaluated the fungal contamination of ready-to-eat dried hazelnuts considering for the first time the application of the same condition drying process of several hazelnut cultivars from different boreal hemisphere areas. Fifty lots of hazelnuts (Corylus avellana), belonging to eight cultivars from seven regions in four countries, were analyzed for fungal microbiota, describing both load levels and species diversity. For this purpose, a polyphasic approach consisting of morphological examination (optical and scanning electron microscope observation) and molecular characterization [PCR-DGGE analysis and sequence analyses of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS)] was performed. The results show that different fungal populations occur in dried hazelnuts regardless of their geographical area of production. Although some varieties appear to be relatively less susceptible, species related to Aspergillus, such as A. commune and A. ochraceus, Penicillium, including P. commune, P. solitum, and P. expansum, and Rhizopus, for instance, R. stolonifer and R. oryzae, have generally been found. A related character “hazelnut cultivar—fungi” was found for species related to the genera Trichoderma and Fusarium, including F. oxyxporum, F. solani, and F. falciforme. All 14 species found are known to host pathogenic strains. Therefore, their presence in a ready-to-eat product, such as dried hazelnuts, can pose a real danger to the consumer. Based on these considerations, the development of new protective strategies seems highly desirable. The species-level description of the contaminating fungal community acquired through this study is the starting point for the development of tailor-made protective biotechnologies.

Occurrence and exposure assessment of aflatoxins in Zhejiang province, China

The purpose of this study was to assess the risk of aflatoxins due to multiple food consumption among the Zhejiang population. Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry method was used to determine aflatoxins in 792 samples. Aflatoxins were detected in 27.1% of the samples at levels between 0.07 and 262.63 μg kg^-1, and aflatoxins B₁ was the most frequently detected among different types of samples. 0.8% of peanut oil, 3.39% of nut products as well as 1.1% of condiments contaminated with aflatoxins B₁ exceeded China national tolerance limits. Peanut oil had the highest incidence of aflatoxin, with a range from 0.17 to 22.50 μg kg^-1. Using bags conferred limited advantages in reducing aflatoxin contents. Moreover, peanut and rice were the main contributors to dietary exposure to aflatoxins among Zhejiang residents. Finally, the margin of exposure values obtained by rice consumption were far from the safe margin of 10,000, indicating a potential risk to public health. The results pointed out the need for further prioritization of aflatoxins B₁ risk-management actions in Zhejiang.

Aflatoxin contamination in food crops: causes, detection, and management: a review

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several fungal species and molds. Under favorable conditions like high temperature and moisture, they contaminate a large number of food commodities and regional crops during pre and post-harvesting. Aflatoxin is the main mycotoxin that harm animal and human health due to its carcinogenic nature. Aflatoxins are mainly released by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. AFB1 constitutes the most harmful type of aflatoxins and is a potent hepato-carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and it suppresses the immune system. To maintain food safety and to prevent aflatoxin contamination in food crops, combined approaches of using resistant varieties along with recommended farming practices should be followed. This review concentrates on various aspects of mycotoxin contamination in crops and recent methods to prevent or minimize the contamination.

Incidence of ionophore and non-ionophore anticoccidials residues in poultry meat and eggs and their risk characterization

A multi-residue method was applied to investigate the incidence and the concentration of ionophores and non-ionophore anticoccidials residues in poultry meat and hen eggs for the three-year period 2017-2019 in Italy. The risk related to the ingestion of such molecules was also characterized for the entire population. The average incidences of positive samples ranged from 1.35 to 9.45% while the maximum average concentration was of 4.28 μg/kg for nonionophore molecules. No uncompliant sample was recorded. The overall risk characterization related to the intake of anticoccidials trought chicken meat and eggs reveal a minor concern for consumers of all age. However, the monitoring of coccidiostates residues through official control activity in poultry meat and egg is crucial and it should be continuously conducted to ensure safety of such products and safeguard consumers̛ health.

Advances in cultivar choice, hazelnut orchard management, and nut storage to enhance product quality and safety: an overview

European hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) is a major species of interest for nutritional use within the Betulaceae family and its nuts are widely used throughout the world in the chocolate, confectionery, and bakery industries. Recently its cultivation has been expanded in traditional producer countries and established in new places in the southern hemisphere, including Chile, South Africa, and Australia. Introducing hazelnut in new environments could reduce its productivity, lead the trees to experience eco-physiological disorders, and expose the crop to high pressure from common and new pests and diseases. Thus, new approaches in cultivar choice guidance, in the sustainable orchard management and even in nut storage and kernel quality evaluation are urgently required to improve the hazelnut production and processing chain. The main objective of this study was to systematize the published information regarding recent findings about the cultural operations that directly influence nut and kernel quality, support varietal choice for new plantations, and list the recent advances in nut storage and in quality and safety evaluation. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Seasonal Variation in Aflatoxin Levels in Edible Seeds, Estimation of Its Dietary Intake and Vitamin E Levels in Southern Areas of Punjab, Pakistan

A total of 779 samples of edible nuts (melon seeds, watermelon seeds, pumpkin seeds, and cantaloupe seeds) from Southern Punjab (Pakistan), were collected during the summer and the winter seasons. The natural occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs) and vitamin E (tocopherols) levels were investigated using HPLC. The results have shown that 180 (43.4%) of samples from the winter season and 122 (33.4%) samples from the summer season were found positive for AFs. Elevated average levels of total AFs (20.9 ± 3.10 μg/kg, dry weight) were observed in watermelon seeds without shell, and the lowest average amount (15.9 ± 3.60 μg/kg) were documented in melon seeds without shell samples from the winter season. An elevated average amount of total AFs 17.3 ± 1.50 μg/kg was found in pumpkin seeds available without a shell. The results have documented a significant difference in total AFs levels in edible seeds available with shells versus without shells (α = 0.05 & 0.01). The highest dietary intake of 6.30 μg/kg/day was found in female individuals from consuming pumpkin seeds (without shell) in the winter season. A value of 3.00 μg/kg/day was found in pumpkin seed without shell in the summer season in female individuals. The highest total tocopherol levels were 22.2 ± 7.70 ng/100 g in pumpkin seeds samples from the winter season and 14.5 ± 5.50 mg/100 g in melon seed samples from the summer season. The variation of total tocopherol levels in edible seeds among the winter and summer seasons showed a significant difference (p ≤ 0.0054), except watermelon seeds samples with non-significant differences (p ≥ 0.183).

Detection of aflatoxin B1 with a new label-free fluorescent aptasensor based on exonuclease I and SYBR Gold

This paper describes a new label-free fluorescent aptasensor for the detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) based upon exonuclease I (Exo I) and SYBR Gold, in which SYBR Gold, aptamer, AFB1, and Exo I were used. Specific combinations of aptamer and AFB1 occurred in the presence of AFB1 and consequently altered the spatial structure of the aptamer, thereby preventing its digestion by Exo I. When SYBR Gold was added, intense fluorescence was observed. Additionally, a good linear relationship was observed under optimized conditions between the fluorescence intensities and the AFB1 concentrations (R2 = 0.993). The established aptamer sensor was highly sensitive and exhibited a low limit of detection of 1.82 ng mL-1, with superior specificity for AFB1. It was also used in the quantification of AFB1 levels in soybean sauce samples and demonstrated satisfactory recoveries in the scope of 94.8-108.9%. The proposed sensor is highly sensitive, low cost, and capable of rapid detection and can thus be used to determine mycotoxin levels in a wide range of feeds and food products in a high-throughput and quantitative means.

Food hazards on the European Union market: The data analysis of the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed

The aim of the study was to examine similarities in notifications on main hazards within food reported in the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) in 1979-2017. The main problems were mycotoxins in nuts, pathogenic microorganisms in poultry meat and fish, pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables, and heavy metals in fish. The increase in the number of notifications has been observed since 2002/2003. Products were notified mainly by Italy, Germany, and United Kingdom and originated from Asian and European Union countries. The notification basis was border control and official control, and the notification type was border rejections, information, and alerts. Notified products were not distributed and not placed on the market, distribution status could be also not specified, or distribution was possible, also to other countries. The risk decision on hazard was usually not made. Products were redispatched, withdrawn from the market, and destroyed, or import was not authorized. Remarks, which can be used to improve the RASFF database, were also presented. It was further pointed out that European law should significantly reduce the use of pesticides, drugs, and food additives, and European agriculture should be reoriented from an intensive farming to a more sustainable and ecological one.

Molecular Characterization of Diaporthe Species Associated With Hazelnut Defects

Fungi of the genus Diaporthe have been reported as the main causative agent of hazelnut defects in the Caucasus area. This study aimed to define which fungal species are present in defective hazelnuts grown in Turkey and confirm the role of Diaporthe spp. Seven hazelnut orchards were selected, with each one located in a different Turkish Province (Düzce, Giresun, Ordu, Samsun, Sakarya, Trabzon, and Zonguldak), and hazelnuts were collected at early and full ripening. Fungal isolation and identification were performed at the genus level based on morphological characteristics. Several genera were isolated, with Diaporthe spp. being among the prevalent. This was the only genus with increasing incidence from early to full ripening, and incidence at full ripening was positively correlated both with internal (ρ = 0.86) and visible defects (ρ = 0.81), which confirmed its role as the key causative agent of hazelnut defects. The correlation of defect occurrence with rainfall, reported in previous study, was not confirmed, possibly due to the low defect incidence. A total of 86 Diaporthe monosporic strains isolated from Turkish hazelnut samples, together with 33 strains collected in the Caucasus region and 6 from Italy, were analyzed with a multi-locus phylogeny based on three genomic loci (ITS, EF1-α, and tub). The results showed that Diaporthe strains can be grouped into 7 distinct clades, with a majority of Turkish strains (95%) being placed into a single clade related with D. eres. These samples were organized into several sub-clades, which indicates the existence of genetically diverse sub-populations.

Aflatoxins in Food and Feed: An Overview on Prevalence, Detection and Control Strategies

Aflatoxins produced by the Aspergillus species are highly toxic, carcinogenic, and cause severe contamination to food sources, leading to serious health consequences. Contaminations by aflatoxins have been reported in food and feed, such as groundnuts, millet, sesame seeds, maize, wheat, rice, fig, spices and cocoa due to fungal infection during pre- and post-harvest conditions. Besides these food products, commercial products like peanut butter, cooking oil and cosmetics have also been reported to be contaminated by aflatoxins. Even a low concentration of aflatoxins is hazardous for human and livestock. The identification and quantification of aflatoxins in food and feed is a major challenge to guarantee food safety. Therefore, developing feasible, sensitive and robust analytical methods is paramount for the identification and quantification of aflatoxins present in low concentrations in food and feed. There are various chromatographic and sensor-based methods used for the detection of aflatoxins. The current review provides insight into the sources of contamination, occurrence, detection techniques, and masked mycotoxin, in addition to management strategies of aflatoxins to ensure food safety and security.

Separation and Purification of Aflatoxins by Centrifugal Partition Chromatography

Aflatoxins are mycotoxins that are produced by several species of filamentous fungi. In the European Union, the concentration limits for this group of mycotoxins in food and feed products are very low (on the order of parts per billion). Thus, relatively high amounts of these substances in their pure forms are required as reference standards. Chromatographic techniques based on solid stationary phases are generally used to purify these molecules; however, liquid–liquid chromatographic separations may be a promising alternative. Therefore, this study proposes a liquid–liquid chromatographic method for the separation of four aflatoxins and impurities. To optimise the method, numerous biphasic solvent systems (chloroform-, acetone- and acetic acid-based systems) were tested and evaluated in terms of their effectiveness at partitioning aflatoxins; the toluene/acetic acid/water (30:24:50, v/v/v/%) system was found to be the most efficient for application in centrifugal partition chromatographic instrument. Using liquid–liquid instrumental separation, the four aflatoxins, namely B₁ (400 mg), B₂ (34 mg), G₁ (817 mg) and G₂ (100 mg), were successfully isolated with 96.3%–98.2% purity from 4.5 L of Aspergillus parasiticus fermented material in a 250 mL centrifugal partition chromatography column. The identities and purities of the purified components were confirmed, and the performance parameters of each separation step and the whole procedure was determined. The developed method could be effectively used to purify aflatoxins for analytical applications.

Fungi Associated with and Influence of Moisture on Development of Kernel Mold of Hazelnut

Kernel mold on hazelnuts is defined by the United States Department of Agriculture, U.S.A., as any visible fungal growth either on the outside or inside of the kernel. Only one yeast and one filamentous fungus have been associated with kernel mold of hazelnut in Oregon. In this report, fungi were isolated from kernels with mold and identified using morphological and molecular characters. Penicillium spp. were isolated most often from kernels with mold, but species of Aspergillus and Cladosporium and Diaporthe rudis were also frequently isolated. Additional fungi from three other genera were also isolated. All of the same fungi were also isolated from symptomless kernels. Eremothecium coryli or Ramularia sp. previously associated with kernel defects in Oregon were not found associated with symptoms of kernel mold. Incidence of mold was the highest when nuts were incubated in moist chambers on wet, nonautoclaved orchard soil and was significantly higher than kernel mold found in nuts incubated on either air-dried soil or wet, autoclaved soil. Preventing hazelnuts from coming in contact with wet soil in the field using elevated wire screens resulted in significantly less mold development in two out of three years evaluated. Nuts on screens had a greater chance to dry out between rainstorms as measured by significantly lower nut moisture levels at harvest.

Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in chocolate products in Turkey

This survey describes the occurrence and levels of AFs and OTA in chocolate products consumed in Turkey. A total of 130 samples, including bitter chocolate, milk chocolate and chocolate wafers were analysed for these mycotoxins by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). The values of recovery (81-92%) and precision (RSD < 9%) fulfilled the requirements of EC Regulation No. 401/2006. OTA was the most prevalent mycotoxin, with an incidence of 46.7% in bitter chocolate, 22.8% in milk chocolate and 17.4% in chocolate wafers, ranging from 0.18 to 0.75 μg kg^-1. AFs were detected in 13.3% of bitter chocolate, in 19.6% of milk chocolate and in 8.7% of chocolate wafers, in concentrations ranging from 0.15 to 2.04 μg kg^-1.

Aflatoxin in foodstuffs: Occurrence and recent advances in decontamination

Aflatoxins are highly toxic compounds produced as secondary metabolites by some Aspergillus species, whose occurrence have been reported predominantly in several types of foods of low moisture content, while aflatoxin biotransformation products have been reported mainly in milk and milk products. This review deals with the occurrence of aflatoxins in some of the major food products in the last 5 years including regulatory aspects, and recent advances in detoxification strategies for contaminated foods. Aflatoxin contamination in cereals including corn and peanut is still a public health problem for some populations, especially in African countries. Despite that most of physical and chemical methods for aflatoxin detoxification may affect the nutritional properties of food, or are not safe for human consumption, gamma-radiation and ozone applications have demonstrated great potential for detoxification of aflatoxins in some food matrices. Biological methods based on removal or degradation of aflatoxins by bacterial and yeast have good perspectives, although further studies are needed to clarify the detoxification mechanisms by microorganisms and determine practical aspects of the use of these methods in food products, especially their potential effects on sensory characteristics of foods.

Aspergillus section Flavi and aflatoxins in dried figs and nuts in Algeria

The presence of Aspergillus section Flavi and aflatoxin (AF) contamination was investigated in 112 samples of peanuts, almonds and dried figs collected in Algeria. The occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) in different commodities has been determined with a sensitive method based on high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with fluorescence detection with post-column photochemical derivatisation. Analytical results indicated that 28 samples of peanuts, 16 samples of almonds and 26 samples of dried figs contained detectable levels of AFs. A total of 69 samples (61.6%) were contaminated with AFB1 ranging from the limit of quantification to 174 µg kg^-1. AFB2 was found in 12 samples (10.7%) and varied from 0.18 to 193 µg kg^-1. Seven samples revealed AF concentrations lower than the limit of quantification. Eleven peanut and fourteen dried fig samples exceeded the European maximum limits for AFB1.

Determination of aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products using high performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence with post column photochemical derivatization

The determination of aflatoxin M₁ in milk using high performance liquid chromatography with photochemical post-column derivatization and fluorescence detection is described. The samples were first extracted and clean-up using the immunoaffinity AFLATEST column originally targeted for aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂. The separation of aflatoxin M₁ were performed using C18 Hypersil gold (150mm×4.6mm, 5μm) column at 40°C under isocratic elution. Fluorescence detector (FLD) was set at 360nm and 440nm as excitation and emission, respectively. The use of methanol to replace acetonitrile as the mobile phase resulted in ∼67% peak area enhancement of AFM₁. The limit of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) of the analytical method after post-column derivatization without evaporation/reconstitution with mobile phase was 0.0085μgL^-1 and 0.025μgL^-1 respectively. However, LOD and LOQ improved to 0.002 and 0.004μgL^-1 respectively with the addition of evaporation/reconstitution step. The method was statistically validated, showing linear response (R²>0.999), good recoveries (85.2-107.0%) and relative standard deviations (RSD) were found to be ≤7%. The proposed method was applied to determine AFM₁ contamination in various types of milk and milk products. Only 2 samples were contaminated with aflatoxin M₁ (10% incidence). However, the contamination level is below the Malaysian and European legislation limits.