Chemical interesterification of blends with palm stearin and patawa oil

Recent Advances in Lipid Crystallization in the Food Industry

This review discusses fundamental concepts of fat crystallization and how various processing conditions such as crystallization temperature, cooling rate, and shear or agitation affect this process. Traditional methods used to process fats, such as the use of scraped surface heat exchangers, fractionation, and interesterification, are described. Parameters that affect fat crystallization in these systems, such as shear, crystallization temperature, type of fat, and type of process, are discussed. In addition, the use of minor components to induce or delay fat crystallization based on their chemical composition is presented. The use of novel technologies, such as high-intensity ultrasound, oleogelation, and high-pressure crystallization is also reviewed. In these cases, acoustic and high-pressure process parameters, the various types of oleogels, and the use of oleogelators of differing chemical compositions are discussed. The combination of all these techniques and future trends is also presented.

Thermophysical properties of blends composed of Amazonian fats and soybean oil

Thermophysical properties of blends composed of soybean oil and fats obtained from fruits and seeds from Brazilian Amazonian region (Murumuru, Tucuma, and Bacuri) were investigated, looking for more sustainable alternatives to the mostly used industrial fats, for applications in product formulation. Fatty acid (FA) and triacylglycerol composition, nutritional indexes, solid fat content (SFC), compatibility, consistency, melting, and crystallization profiles were determined. Soybean oil increased blends' unsaturated FA profile, leading to lower SFC, but higher nutritional quality. Fats' melting profiles were significantly altered with soybean oil addition: temperatures decreased with the increase in oil content. Iso-solids diagrams showed that lipids were compatible, which is a technological advantage. SFC and consistency profiles suggested that tucuma and murumuru fats could be used as hardstocks for lipid products, and bacuri fat could be applied in products such as margarine and spreads. Blends could improve fats' spreadability and other technological properties, which is promising for applications in products formulation.

Enzymatic interesterification improves the lipid composition, physicochemical properties and rheological behavior of Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel oil, Pangasius bocourti stearin and perilla seed oil blends

The study aimed to investigate the effect of enzymatic interesterification on the lipid composition, physicochemical properties and rheological behavior of Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel oil (CCSKO), Pangasius bocourti stearin (PBST) and perilla seed oil (PSO) blends. The results showed that the interesterification process significantly changed the TAG profile of the blends. Lipid products from the enzymatic interesterification (EIE) had significantly lower slide melting point and solid fat content than the non-interesterification (NIE) lipid products. Interesterification process changed the crystal polymorphic forms from β > β' of NIE to β < β' of EIE. The crystal morphology of EIE was smaller and more diffuse compared to the NIE. Moreover, EIE showed improved rheological behavior, which was more suitable for food margarine preparation. The findings have provided a theoretical basis for the potential application of Lipozyme TL IM modified lipid products in the food industry.

Preparation of a novel healthy tiger nut oil-based margarine fat with low trans and saturated fatty acids

The present study sought to develop a novel healthy margarine fat with low levels of trans and saturated fatty acids in order to promote healthier alternatives. In this work, tiger nut oil was first used as a raw material to prepare margarine fat. The effects of mass ratio, reaction temperature, catalyst dosage, and time on the interesterification reaction were investigated and optimized. The results showed that, the margarine fat with ≤40% saturated fatty acids was achieved using a 6:4 mass ratio of tiger nut oil to palm stearin. The ideal interesterification parameters were 80 °C, 0.36% (w/w) catalyst dosage, and 32 min. Compared with physical blends, the interesterified oil had lower solid fat content (3.71% at 35 °C), lower slip melting point (33.5 °C), and lower levels of tri-saturated triacylglycerols (1.27%). This investigation provides important information for the utilization of tiger nut oil in healthy margarine formulation.

Malleability and Physicochemical Properties of Industrial Sheet Margarine with Shea Olein after Interesterification

The malleability of Industrial Sheet Margarine (ISM) is essential for the formation of consistent layered structures of pastry products. However, there is limited reporting on how to improve the malleability of ISM with zero trans fatty acids (TFA) at an industrial production scale. Therefore, herein, Shea Olein (SHOL), rich in stearic acid C18:0, was employed as a value-added formulation ingredient to replace palm olein (POL) in palm-based formula (palm stearin:palm kernel olein:palm olein, 50:15:35, w/w/w) and the chemical interesterification (CIE) fat as ISM material was performed to improve the application performance. The addition of SHOL improved the crystallization characteristics by increasing the β' crystal content from 70.86% to 92.29% compared with a POL-added formula. The hardness of the two formulations after CIE decreased by 60% and 65%, respectively, compared with that before CIE due to the decrease of PPP and POP, and the increase of POS and PSS triacylglycerols. Melting profiles, polymorphism, and crystal structures systematically proved the bending and sheeting features and functional properties. The bending abilities and malleability of ISM with SHOL and CIE fats were significantly improved, resulting in a more conducive application performance. The study provided a practical approach to improving the malleability of ISM in industrial-level production.

The Novel Approach of Catalytic Interesterification, Hydrolysis and Transesterification of Pongamia pinnata Oil

The properties of biodiesel are completely dependent on the fatty acid profile of feedstock oils. Several feedstocks are not in use for biodiesel production because of the presence of unsuitable fatty acids in their oils. The present study was conducted to overcome this problem by the utilization of interesterification and hydrolysis processes. The present study reports biodiesel with much better cold flow properties than previous studies. Fatty acids present in Pongamia pinnata oil were optimized via interesterification and hydrolysis treatment of feedstock prior to alkali-catalyzed transesterification. The physiochemical properties of fuel were evaluated by standard test methods and the results were compared with EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 standards. Biodiesel composition was analyzed by a gas chromatographic analysis. The density, saponification and iodine values of the biodiesel derived from treated and non-treated oil were found to be within the range recommended by the international fuel standards. The acid values of biodiesel produced from non-treated and treated fractions were high (0.7–0.8 mg of KOH/g of oil), as compared to the biodiesel produced from non-treated and treated pure oil. The cloud points and pour points of biodiesel produced from hydrolyzed and interesterified oil were in the range of (8.1 to −9.6 °C) and (2.03 to −12.5 °C), respectively, while those of non-treated oil were in the range of (13.37 to −1.53 °C). These results indicate that treatments of oil specifically improved the low-temperature properties of biodiesel.

Effect of palm stearin on the physicochemical characterization and capsaicinoid digestion of Sichuan hotpot oil

Beef tallow (BT) is the common hotpot oil used in Sichuan hotpot, increasing its characteristic flavors and making it taste better. However, the cholesterol content in BT is high, which may induce cardiovascular diseases. In this study, the effect of palm stearin (PS) on Sichuan hotpot oil was evaluated. The PS: BT blends showed similar physicochemical properties to BT from the results of sensory evaluation, pulsed NMR, DSC, and polar light micrograph (PLM). Furthermore, since spiciness is the essential characteristic of Sichuan hotpot, the digestive properties of capsaicinoids in hotpot oil were used as an evaluation index. The results showed that the digestive properties of capsaicinoids in hotpot oil containing PS were consistent with those without PS. In conclusion, PS can be partially used to replace BT, which can broaden the types of oil used for hotpot and help develop a new hotpot oil.

Chemical and physical properties of fats produced by chemical interesterification of tallow with vegetable oils

This study aims at manufacturing structured lipids by chemical interesterification (CI) of beef tallow with corn, canola and safflower oils individually at various tallow blend ratios (60, 70, 80%) and catalyst concentrations (0.75, 0.875, 1%). Several physical and chemical properties of interesterified products were determined and data were analyzed using univariate and multivariate statistical techniques. Interesterified lipids were more spreadable and showed plastic behavior due to their lower consistency and solid fat contents. Decreases in melting points to a temperature range of 26.5-45.5 °C regardless of oil type were observed. Interesterified fats displayed mostly β’ and β’+β crystal forms. The CI of tallow did not result in the formation of significant amounts of trans-fatty acids. Samples interesterified with corn oil had lower free fatty acid contents (1.87-3.9%) and higher oxidation induction times (3.82-12.25h) than other lipids. Therefore, fats containing corn oil-tallow could be used in the baking industry due to their potentially good aeration properties and smooth texture.

Tailoring the Structure of Lipids, Oleogels and Fat Replacers by Different Approaches for Solving the Trans-Fat Issue-A Review

The issue of the adverse effects of trans-fatty acids has become more transparent in recent years due to researched evidence of their link with coronary diseases, obesity or type 2 diabetes. Apart from conventional techniques for lipid structuring, novel nonconventional approaches for the same matter, such as enzymatic interesterification, genetic modification, oleogelation or using components from nonlipid origins such as fat replacers have been proposed, leading to a product with a healthier nutritional profile (low in saturated fats, zero trans fats and high in polyunsaturated fats). However, replacing conventional fat with a structured lipid or with a fat mimetic can alternate some of the technological operations or the food quality impeding consumers' acceptance. In this review, we summarize the research of the different existing methods (including conventional and nonconventional) for tailoring lipids in order to give a concise and critical overview in the field. Specifically, raw materials, methods for their production and the potential of food application, together with the properties of new product formulations, have been discussed. Future perspectives, such as the possibility of bioengineering approaches and the valorization of industrial side streams in the framework of Green Production and Circular Economy in the production of tailored lipids, have been highlighted. Additionally, a schematic diagram classifying conventional and nonconventional techniques is proposed based on the processing steps included in tailored lipid production as a convenient and straightforward tool for research and industry searching for healthy, sustainable and zero trans edible lipid system alternatives.

Enzymatic interesterification effect on the physicochemical and technological properties of cupuassu seed fat and inaja pulp oil blends

The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of enzymatic interesterification process in blends with different proportions (w:w) of cupuassu fat and inaja oil (80:20, 70:30, 60:40, 50:50 and 40:60). The interesterification reaction was carried out at 65 °C, agitation at 150 rpm, and enzyme concentration of 5% (w/w), for 6 h. Acidity index, melting point, consistency and solid fat content of the blends were characterized before and after the interesterification process. Fatty acid content was characterized in cupuassu fat and inaja oil and, nutritional quality indexes of atherogenicity (AI) and thrombogenicity (TI) were calculated. Enzymatic interesterification promoted a decrease in acidity (<0.6%) and changes in the blends' properties, making them suitable for food product preparation. All esterified blends (cupuassu seed fat:inaja pulp oil) presented suitable consistency properties, plasticity and spreadability to be used for the preparation of functional, table and soft table types of margarine and used in food preparation such as special fats.

The Influence of Interesterification on the Thermal and Technological Properties of Milkfat-Rapeseed Oil Mixture and Its Potential Use in Incorporation of Model Meat Batters

Enzymatic interesterification gives the possibility to obtain a wide range of lipids with a modified structure. In the present study, model meat batters were produced from chicken breast muscles and enzymatically interesterified fats: milkfat:rapeseed oil (3:2 w/w). Fatty acids composition and their positional distribution in triacylglycerol, melting profile and oxidative stability have been determined in fats used for interesterification, after interesterification and extracted from meat batters. In meat batters, the physiochemical parameters were determined. Interesterified fats were characterized by significantly lower induction times than noninteresterified fat (85.29 and 18.21 min, respectively). Meat batters were also characterized by a lower oxidative stability of lipid fraction (24.90 and 13.67 min) than lipids used to their production. A higher content of unsaturated fatty acids was found in meat batters with noninteresterified and interesterified fats (69.40% and 70.03%, respectively) than in the control meat batter with a pork jowl (58.63%). In comparison to the control product, meat batter prepared with interesterified mixture was characterized by significantly lower apparent viscosity. In the analyzed meat batters, there were no differences in thermal drip and penetration force. The incorporation of interesterified milkfat with rapeseed oil in model meat batters can be a strategy to improve the nutritional quality without adversely affecting the quality characteristics.

Evaluation of enzymatic interesterification in structured triacylglycerols preparation: a concise review and prospect

Enzymatic interesterification (EIE) is one of the emerging technologies in the specialty fats industry. EIE has several advantages over the conventional chemical interesterification method, such that the process has higher flexibility and efficiency, is environmentally friendly and the immobilized enzyme can be recycled besides of the lower requirement for substrate's acid value. The physical properties and nutritional qualities of the fats and oils are modified after EIE, depending on the change in the position of fatty acids on the triacylglycerol (TAG) molecules. Evaluation of the interesterification reaction are important and useful in terms of its technological applications. This paper summarizes the conventional methods and the advancement for evaluating EIE processes, e.g., determination of the change in slip melting points, solid fat contents, TAG with equivalent carbon numbers, and sn-2 fatty acid compositions of the end product. Nonetheless, these methods are not comprehensive because during the EIE process, acyl migration occurs. A novel and convenient evaluation model which is based on the fatty acid distribution on the glycerol-backbone is proposed as a perspective. This model can be employed to monitor the interesterification degree and acyl migration during a regiospecific EIE process, which serves as a reaction rule that can be employed to control and optimize the EIE process, thereby producing structured TAG with desired properties.

Milk fat crystal network as a strategy for delivering vegetable oils high in omega-9, -6, and -3 fatty acids

As an alternative to the strategies currently used to deliver unsaturated fatty acids, especially, the essentials omega-6 and 3- fatty acids, the aim of this work was to investigate the effect of the incorporation of 25 e 50% (w/w) of olive, corn and linseed oil into the crystal structure of anhydrous milk fat (AMF). Fatty acid composition, atherogenicity (AI), and thrombogenicity (TI) index, crystallization kinetics, polymorphism by Rietveld method (RM), microstructure, thermal behavior, solid fat content, and lipid compatibility was evaluated. The addition of vegetable oils reduced the saturated fatty acids, and the AI and TI indices of AMF, and increased the concentration of unsaturated, specifically omega-6 and -3 fatty acids. Although vegetable oils caused changes in nucleation and crystallization kinetics, the spherulitic and crystalline morphology and the β' polymorphism of AMF were maintained. The study demonstrated the possibility of using the crystal structure of AMF as a vehicle for unsaturated fatty acids in food formulations, as an alternative to nutritional supplementation. In addition, studies on the use of RM in blends made with AMF and vegetable oil have not been found in literature, thus demonstrating the relevance of the present study.

Physicochemical Characterization and Evaluation of Emulsions Containing Chemically Modified Fats and Different Hydrocolloids

The study aims to investigate the physicochemical properties and stability of the dispersion systems containing structured fats as a fatty base. In this work, calf tallow and pumpkin seed oil blends were chemically interesterified at various ratios (9:1, 3:1, 3:2, 3:3, 2:3, and 1:3) to produce structured lipids. Fatty acids composition, polar and nonpolar fraction content, and acid value were determined for the raw fats and interesterified blends. Afterwards, selected blends were applied in emulsion systems. Stability, microstructure, color and texture of emulsions were evaluated. The chemical interesterification had an effect on the modified blends properties, and caused an increase in polar fraction content and acid value, and a decrease in nonpolar fraction content. No effect on the fatty acids composition has been found. The evaluation of the prepared emulsions results allowed us to select two of the most stable and favorable samples—both containing chemically interesterified calf tallow and a pumpkin seed oil blend in a ratio of 1:3 as a fatty base, and xanthan gum or carboxymethylcellulose as a thickener. The obtained dispersions, containing fatty bases with improved physicochemical properties and desirable functionality, can be applied as food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical emulsions.

Effects of wax concentration and carbon chain length on the structural modification of fat crystals

Natural waxes are cost-effective and potential fat crystallization modifiers; however, there is limited information about their implementation in solid triacylglycerol (TAG) oil. Herein, we investigated the effects of two natural waxes, namely, candelilla wax (CLW) and rice bran wax (RW), with different concentrations (2, 4, 6, and 8 wt%) and carbon chains on the crystal growth and structure of palm kernel stearin (PKS85). CLW significantly accelerated the PKS85 crystallization process. Both waxes could induce a new hydrocarbon chain with the lengths of 3.70 and 4.15 Å during the TAG crystallization, respectively. Particularly, X-ray diffraction (XRD) indicated that PKS85 combined with CLW showed a similar lamellar thickness (d₀₀₁) and crystal domain size (ξ) with pure PKS85, whereas that of PKS85 containing RW was 1.7-1.8 and 1.5-1.8 fold higher, respectively. This result corresponded to the carbon chain length of CLW and RW, which was double and quadruple that of PKS85, respectively. Further, these variations were reflected in the crystal microstructures of PKS85 with CLW and RW, where the former showed small homogeneous crystals, while the latter displayed large rod-like layered crystals. In addition, the firmness significantly increased when CLW and RW were added, which is possibly attributed to the fact that the waxes became the backbone of the crystal "fence". Our findings give clear insight into the interaction between TAGs and wax molecules in the crystallization process, which can help guide the utilization of natural waxes in the modification of fats.

Potential of Milk Fat to Structure Semisolid Lipidic Systems: A Review

Food production and consumption patterns have changed dramatically in recent decades. The universe of oils and fats, in particular, has been changed due to the negative impacts of trans fatty acids produced industrially through the partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils. Regulations prohibiting its use have led the industry to produce semisolid lipid systems using chemical methods for modification of oils and fats, with limitations from a technological point of view and a lack of knowledge about the metabolization of the modified fats in the body. Milk fat is obtained from the complex biosynthesis in the mammary gland and can be a technological alternative for the modulation of the crystallization processes of semi-solids lipid systems, once it is naturally plastic at the usual processing, storage, and consumption temperatures. The natural plasticity of milk fat is due to its heterogeneous chemical composition, which contains more than 400 different fatty acids that structure approximately 64 million triacylglycerols, with a preferred polymorphic habit in β', besides other physical properties. Therefore, milk fat differs from any lipid raw material found in nature. This review will address the relationship between the chemical behavior and physical properties of semisolid lipids, demonstrating the potential of milk fat as an alternative to the commonly used modification processes.

Enzymatic glycerolysis-interesterification of palm stearin-olein blend for synthesis structured lipid containing high mono- and diacylglycerol

The objective of this research was to evaluate enzymatic glycerolysis-interesterification to synthesize structured lipids (SLs) containing high monoacylglycerol (MAG) and diacylglycerol (DAG) from a palm stearin-olein blend (PS-PO blend). The results showed that the optimum conditions for the solvent to fat ratio, glycerol to fat ratio, and enzyme concentration were 2:1 (v/w), 1.5:1, and 15% (w/w), respectively. The conversion rate of MAG and DAG decreased at a high glycerol to fat ratio, low solvent to fat ratio, and high enzyme concentration due to an increase in viscosity and low agitation effectiveness. The emulsion capacity and stability of the SLs were 60.19% and 96.80%, respectively. The hardness of the SLs increased about 3.1-fold. The MAG, DAG, and triacylglycerol conversion rates were 0.45, 0.48, and 1.02%/h, respectively. Thus, glycerolysis-interesterification of a PS-PO blend increased DAG and MAG concentrations and further improved the hardness, emulsion capacity, and emulsion stability of the SLs.

Extraction of bacaba (

Bacaba is widely consumed by the Amazonian population, and is promising for the production of cooking oil. The objective of this research was to determine the parameters of bacaba oil extraction with supercritical CO2: the fatty acid composition, functional quality, oxidative stability, spectroscopic profile and antioxidant activity of the extracted oil. Extractions of bacaba (Oenocarpus bacaba) oil were performed with supercritical CO2 at temperatures of 40 and 60 ºC, with pressures varying from 120 to 420 bar. The highest mass yield was 60.39 ± 0.72% on a dry basis, obtained in the isotherm of 60 °C and 420 bar. Oleic acid was the major compound. The Infrared spectroscopic profile showed the predominance of unsaturated fatty acids. The results indicate that bacaba oil presents good functional quality.

An investigation on the physicochemical characterization of interesterified blends of fully hydrogenated palm olein and soybean oil

In this study, the effect of interesterification (using sodium methoxide) on physicochemical characteristics of fully hydrogenated palm olein (FHPO)/soybean oil blends (10 ratios) was investigated. Interesterification changed free fatty acid content, decreased oil stability index, solid fat content (SFC) and slip melting point (SMP), and does not affected the peroxide value. With the increase of FHPO ratio, oil stability index, SFC and SMP increased in both the interesterified and non-interesterified blends. Fats with higher FHPO ratio had narrower plastic range, as well. Compared to the initial blends, interesterified fats had wider plastic ranges at lower temperatures. Both the non-interesterified and interesterified blends showed monotectic behavior. The Gompertz function could describe SFC curve (as a function of temperature, saturated fatty acid (SFA) content or both) and SMP (as a function of SFA) of the interesterified fats with high R2 and low mean absolute error.