Assessment of chitosan biopolymer encapsulated α-Terpineol against fungal, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and free radicals mediated deterioration of stored maize and possible mode of action

Innovative Encapsulation Strategies for Food, Industrial, and Pharmaceutical Applications

Bioactive metabolites obtained from fruits and vegetables as well as many drugs have various capacities to prevent or treat various ailments. Nevertheless, their efficiency, in vivo, encounter many challenges resulting in lower efficacy as well as different side effects when high doses are used resulting in many challenges for their application. Indeed, demand for effective treatments with no or less unfavorable side effects is rising. Delivering active molecules to a particular site of action within the human body is an example of targeted therapy which remains a challenging field. Developments of nanotechnology and polymer science have great promise for meeting the growing demands of efficient options. Encapsulation of active ingredients in nano-delivery systems has become as a vitally tool for protecting the integrity of critical biochemicals, improving their delivery, enabling their controlled release and maintaining their biological features. Here, we examine a wide range of nano-delivery techniques, such as niosomes, polymeric/solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and nano-emulsions. The advantages of encapsulation in targeted, synergistic, and supportive therapies are emphasized, along with current progress in its application. Additionally, a revised collection of studies was given, focusing on improving the effectiveness of anticancer medications and addressing the problem of antimicrobial resistance. To sum up, this paper conducted a thorough analysis to determine the efficacy of encapsulation technology in the field of drug discovery and development.

Hepatoprotective effects of a chemically-characterized extract from artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) against AFB1-induced toxicity in rats

This study was conducted to investigate the protective potential of a pharmaceutically formulated capsule of artichoke leaf powder (ArLP) against aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced hepatotoxicity in male albino rats. In the 42-day experiment, rats were divided into five equal groups: (i) control, treated with sterile water, (ii) treated with 4% DMSO as AFB1 vehicle, (iii) ArLP of 100 mg kg-1 bw, (iv) AFB1 of 72 µg kg-1 bw, and (v) AFB1 plus ArLP. Exposure of rats to AFB1 resulted in hepatotoxicity as manifested by the intensification of oxidative stress, production of free radicals and significant increase in the activity levels of liver function enzymes relative to the control. Significant reductions in both the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant markers as well as histopathological abnormalities in liver tissues were also observed. Notably, the combined administration of ArLP with AFB1 clearly reduced AFB1-mediated adverse effects leading to the normalization of most of these parameters back to control levels. These findings clearly highlight the potential benefits of artichoke dietary supplements as a safe and natural solution in counteracting the adverse hepatotoxic effects conferred by AFB1 exposure. Further research is warranted to fully dissect the biochemical and molecular mechanism of action of the observed artichoke-mediated hepatoprotection.

Aflatoxins in food systems: recent advances in toxicology, biosynthesis, regulation and mitigation through green nanoformulations

Aflatoxins are hepatocarcinogenic and immunosuppressive mycotoxins mainly synthesized by Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nomius in food systems, causing negative health impacts to humans and other organisms. Aflatoxins contaminate most of the agri-products of tropical and subtropical regions due to hot and humid conditions and persist in food items even after food processing steps, causing major threat towards the food security. Different physical and chemical strategies have been applied to mitigate aflatoxin contamination. However, negative impacts of chemical preservatives towards health and environment limit their practical applicability. In this regard, plant-based preservatives, due to their economical, eco-friendly and safer profile, are considered as a sustainable approach towards food safety. Incorporation of nanotechnology would enhance the bio-efficacy of green preservatives by overcoming some of their major challenges, such as volatility. The present review deals with recent information on toxicology and molecular and enzymatic regulatory pathways in the biosynthesis of aflatoxins in food systems. A proper understanding of the role of different genes and regulatory proteins may provide novel preventive strategies for aflatoxin detoxification and also in development of aflatoxin-resistant food items. The review also emphasizes the role of green nanoformulations as a sustainable approach towards the management of aflatoxins in food systems. In addition, some technological challenges of green nanotechnology have also been discussed in this review, along with highlighting some future perspectives. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Encapsulation of Cymbopogon khasiana × Cymbopogon pendulus Essential Oil (CKP-25) in Chitosan Nanoemulsion as a Green and Novel Strategy for Mitigation of Fungal Association and Aflatoxin B1 Contamination in Food System

The present study deals with the encapsulation of Cymbopogon khasiana × Cymbopogon pendulus essential oil (CKP-25-EO) into a chitosan nanoemulsion and efficacy assessment for inhibition of fungal inhabitation and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) contamination in Syzygium cumini seeds with emphasis on cellular and molecular mechanism of action. DLS, AFM, SEM, FTIR, and XRD analyses revealed the encapsulation of CKP-25-EO in chitosan with controlled delivery. The CKP-25-Ne displayed enhanced antifungal (0.08 µL/mL), antiaflatoxigenic (0.07 µL/mL), and antioxidant activities (IC_{50 DPPH} = 6.94 µL/mL, IC_{50 ABTS} = 5.40 µL/mL) in comparison to the free EO. Impediment in cellular ergosterol, methylglyoxal biosynthesis, and in silico molecular modeling of CKP-25-Ne validated the cellular and molecular mechanism of antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activity. The CKP-25-Ne showed in situ efficacy for inhibition of lipid peroxidation and AFB₁ secretion in stored S. cumini seeds without altering the sensory profile. Moreover, the higher mammalian safety profile strengthens the application of CKP-25-Ne as a safe green nano-preservative against fungal association, and hazardous AFB₁ contamination in food, agriculture, and pharmaceutical industries.

Effect of Combined Treatment with Cinnamon Oil and petit-High Pressure CO2 against Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This study investigated the effects of the combined treatment with cinnamon oil (CIN) and petit-high pressure CO2 (p-HPCO2) against Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The results showed that CIN and p-HPCO2 exhibited a synergistic antifungal effect against S. cerevisiae. After being treated by CIN at a final concentration of 0.02% and p-HPCO2 under 1.3 MPa at 25 °C for 2 h, the S. cerevisiae population decreased by 3.35 log10 CFU/mL, which was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of CIN (1.11 log10 CFU/mL) or p-HPCO2 (0.31 log10 CFU/mL). Through scanning electron microscopy, fluorescence staining, and other approaches, a disorder of the structure and function of the cell membrane was observed after the CIN + p-HPCO2 treatment, such as severe morphological changes, increased membrane permeability, decreased cell membrane potential, and loss of membrane integrity. CIN + p-HPCO2 also induced mitochondrial membrane depolarization in S. cerevisiae cells, which could be associated with the decrease in intracellular ATP observed in this study. Moreover, the expression of genes involved in ergosterol synthesis in S. cerevisiae was up-regulated after exposure to CIN + p-HPCO2, which might be an adaptive response to membrane damage. This work demonstrates the potential of CIN and p-HPCO2 in combination as an alternative pasteurization technique for use in the food industry.

Synergistic Effects of Probiotic Bifidobacterium Isolated from Chicken's Intestine in Combination with Polyvinylpyrrolidone on Reduction of Aflatoxin B1

Food contamination with aflatoxin is one of the most critical concerns of health professionals. One of the best ways to reduce aflatoxin content in food is probiotics. Therefore, this study was performed to isolate Bifidobacterium from the chick's intestine; evaluate its probiotic activities and its application with Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) to reduce aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁ ) in the medium were investigated. Samples were isolated from the chick's intestine, and Bifidobacterium was isolated and identified by biochemical and molecular methods. Next, the potential probiotic characterization was assessed. Afterward, the effect of selected isolate and PVP on reducing AFB₁ in the medium was studied using ELISA and HPLC. Biochemical and molecular evaluations indicated isolation of Bifidobacterium bifidum strain from chick's intestine. One of the B. bifidum strains was selected for the next steps, which showed potential probiotic characterization and the ability to reduce the concentration of AFB₁ in the medium (50% reduction). When used in combination with PVP showed synergistic effects in reducing the concentration of AFB₁ from the medium (up to 90%). In conclusion, it was found that selected B. bifidum strains and PVP could have synergistic effects in reducing AFB₁ toxin in a medium up to 90%.

Detection of Aflatoxin B1 in Single Peanut Kernels by Combining Hyperspectral and Microscopic Imaging Technologies

To study the dynamic changes of nutrient consumption and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) accumulation in peanut kernels with fungal colonization, macro hyperspectral imaging technology combined with microscopic imaging was investigated. First, regression models to predict AFB₁ contents from hyperspectral data ranging from 1000 to 2500 nm were developed and the results were compared before and after data normalization with Box-Cox transformation. The results indicated that the second-order derivative with a support vector regression (SVR) model using competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) achieved the best performance, with R_C² = 0.95 and R_V² = 0.93. Second, time-lapse microscopic images and spectroscopic data were captured and analyzed with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and synchrotron radiation-Fourier transform infrared (SR-FTIR) microspectroscopy. The time-lapse data revealed the temporal patterns of nutrient loss and aflatoxin accumulation in peanut kernels. The combination of macro and micro imaging technologies proved to be an effective way to detect the interaction mechanism of toxigenic fungus infecting peanuts and to predict the accumulation of AFB₁ quantitatively.

Phytochemistry, Bioactivities and Traditional Uses of Michelia × alba

Michelia × alba (M. alba) is a flowering tree best known for its essential oil, which has long been used as a fragrance ingredient for perfume and cosmetics. In addition, the plant has been used in traditional medicine in Asia and dates back hundreds of years. To date, there is a limited number of publications on the bioactivities of M. alba, which focused on its tyrosinase inhibition, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities. Nevertheless, M. alba may have additional unexplored bioactivities associated with its bioactive compounds such as linalool (72.8% in flower oil and 80.1% in leaf oil), α-terpineol (6.04% flower oil), phenylethyl alcohol (2.58% flower oil), β-pinene (2.39% flower oil), and geraniol (1.23% flower oil). Notably, these compounds have previously been reported to exhibit therapeutic activities such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammation, anti-depression, anti-ulcer, anti-hypertriglyceridemia, and anti-hypertensive activities. In this review paper, we examine and discuss the scientific evidence on the phytochemistry, bioactivities, and traditional uses of M. alba. Here, we report a total of 168 M. alba biological compounds and highlight the therapeutic potential of its key bioactive compounds. This review may provide insights into the therapeutic potential of M. alba and its biologically active components for the prevention and treatment of diseases and management of human health and wellness.

Toxicity Assessment and Control of Early Blight and Stem Rot of Solanum tuberosum L. by Mancozeb-Loaded Chitosan–Gum Acacia Nanocomposites

Biopolymers such as chitosan and gum acacia are used for nanotechnological applications due to their biosafety and ecofriendly nature. The commercial fungicide mancozeb (M) was loaded into chitosan–gum acacia (CSGA) polymers to form nanocomposite (NC) CSGA-M (mancozeb-loaded) measuring 363.6 nm via the ionic gelation and polyelectrolyte complexation method. The physico-chemical study of nano CSGA-M was accomplished using dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Nano CSGA-M-1.0 (containing 1.0 mg/mL mancozeb) at 1.5 ppm demonstrated a maximum inhibition (83.8 ± 0.7%) against Alternaria solani, while Sclerotinia sclerotiorum exhibited a 100% inhibition at 1.0 and 1.5 ppm through the mycelium inhibition method. Commercial mancozeb showed an inhibition of 84.6 ± 0% and 100%, respectively, for both fungi. In pot house conditions, NCs were found to exhibit good antimicrobial activity. Disease control efficiency (DCE, in %) in pathogen-treated plants for CSGA-M-1.0 was 64.6 ± 5.0 and 60.2 ± 1.4% against early blight and stem rot diseases, respectively. NCs showed lower cytotoxicity than commercial mancozeb at the given concentration. In conclusion, both in vitro and in vivo antifungal efficacy for nano CSGA-M was found to be quite comparable but less toxic than mancozeb to Vero cell lines; thus, in the future, this formulation may be used for sustainable agriculture.

Fabrication, characterization, and bioactivity assessment of chitosan nanoemulsion containing allspice essential oil to mitigate Aspergillus flavus contamination and aflatoxin B1 production in maize

The direct incorporation of essential oils (EOs) into real food system faces numerous challenges due to high volatility, intense aroma, and instability. This research aimed to enhance the stability and bio-efficacy of Pimenta dioica essential oil (PDEO) through encapsulation in chitosan (CN) nanoemulsion. The nanoemulsion (CN-PDEO) was fabricated through ionic-gelation technique. CN-PDEO exhibited high nanoencapsulation efficiency (85.84%) and loading capacity (8.26%) with the particle size ranging between 18.53 and 70.56 nm. Bio-efficacy assessment results showed that CN-PDEO presented more effective antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activity against Aspergillus flavus (AF-LHP-VS8) at lower doses (1.6 and 1.0 µL/mL) than the pure PDEO (2.5 and 1.5 µL/mL, respectively, p < 0.05). Additionally, CN-PDEO preserved model food (maize) from aflatoxin B₁and lipid peroxidation without altering their sensory properties during storage with high safety profile (p < 0.05). Overall results concluded that CN-PDEO can be recommended for shelf-life extension of stored maize and other food commodities.

Assessing the Levisticum officinale Koch. essential oil as a novel preservative for stored chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) with emphasis on probable mechanism of action

The present study was undertaken to explore the inhibitory effect of Levisticum officinale Koch. essential oil (L_offEO) on the growth and aflatoxin B₁ secretion by Aspergillus flavus (AF-LHP-SH1, aflatoxigenic strain) causing deterioration of stored chia seeds (Salvia hispanica). The chemical profile analysis of L_offEO by GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of α-terpinyl acetate (26.03 %) as a major component followed by terpineol <1- > (24.03 %) and citronellal (24.03 %). Results on antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activity indicated that L_offEO at 2.0 and 1.75 μL/mL caused complete inhibition of growth and aflatoxin B₁ production, respectively. Antifungal toxicity of L_offEO was strongly correlated with the inhibition of ergosterol content, leakage of cellular ions, and disintegration of membrane permeability. Reduction in cellular methylglyoxal by L_offEO indicated a novel antiaflatoxigenic mechanism of action. The L_offEO showed moderate free radical quenching activity in DPPH assay (IC₅₀ = 26.10 μL/mL) and exhibited remarkable inhibitory efficacy against lipid peroxidation of chia seeds. In addition, L_offEO presented strong in situ antiaflatoxigenic efficacy, and exhibited non-phytotoxic nature, acceptable sensory characteristics, and favorable safety profile (LD₅₀ = 19786.59 μL/kg), which recommends its practical utilization as a novel and safe preservative to improve the shelf life of stored chia seeds from fungal infestation and aflatoxin B₁ contamination.

Comprehensive study of α-terpineol-loaded oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsion: interfacial property, formulation, physical and chemical stability

In this study, the interfacial ability of α-terpineol (α-TOH) was reported, followed by its trapping into oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsion as active-ingredient and the long-term observation of this nanosystem influenced by the storage-time (410-days) and temperature (5, 25, 50 °C). The results indicated that the α-TOH can reduce the interfacial tension on the liquid-liquid interface (ΔG°m = -1.81 KJ mol-1; surface density = 8.19 × 10-6 mol m-2; polar head group area = 20.29 Å2), in the absence or presence of surfactant. The O/W nanoemulsion loaded with a high amount of α-TOH (90 mg mL-1; 9α-TOH-NE) into the oil phase was successfully formulated. Among the physical parameters, the mean droplet diameter (MDD) showed a great thermal dependence influenced by the storage-temperature, where the Ostwald ripening (OR) was identified as the main destabilizing phenomena that was taking place on 9α-TOH-NE at 5 and 25 °C along with time. Despite of the physical instability, the integrity of both nanoemulsion at 5 °C and 25 °C was fully preserved up to 410th day, displaying a homogeneous and comparable appearance by visual observation. On contrary, a non-thermal dependence was found for chemical stability, where over 88% of the initial amount of the α-TOH nanoemulsified remained in both 9α-TOH-NE at 5 and 25 °C, up to 410th day. Beyond the key data reported for α-TOH, the importance of this research relies on the long-term tracking of a nanostructured system which can be useful for scientific community as a model for a robust evaluation of nanoemulsion loaded with flavor oils.

Nanoemulsion-Based Technologies for Delivering Natural Plant-Based Antimicrobials in Foods

There is increasing interest in the use of natural preservatives (rather than synthetic ones) for maintaining the quality and safety of foods due to their perceived environmental and health benefits. In particular, plant-based antimicrobials are being employed to protect against microbial spoilage, thereby improving food safety, quality, and shelf-life. However, many natural antimicrobials cannot be utilized in their free form due to their chemical instability, poor dispersibility in food matrices, or unacceptable flavor profiles. For these reasons, encapsulation technologies, such as nanoemulsions, are being developed to overcome these hurdles. Indeed, encapsulation of plant-based preservatives can improve their handling and ease of use, as well as enhance their potency. This review highlights the various kinds of plant-based preservatives that are available for use in food applications. It then describes the methods available for forming nanoemulsions and shows how they can be used to encapsulate and deliver plant-based preservatives. Finally, potential applications of nano-emulsified plant-based preservatives for improving food quality and safety are demonstrated in the meat, fish, dairy, and fresh produce areas.

Nanoencapsulation of essential oils and their bioactive constituents: A novel strategy to control mycotoxin contamination in food system

Spoilage of food by mycotoxigenic fungi poses a serious risk to food security throughout the world. In view of the negative effects of synthetic preservatives, essential oils (EOs) and their bioactive constituents are gaining momentum as suitable substitute to ensure food safety by controlling mycotoxins. However, despite their proven preservative potential against mycotoxins, the use of EOs/bioactive constituents in real food system is still restricted due to instability caused by abiotic factors and negative impact on organoleptic attributes after direct application. Nanoencapsulation in this regard could be a promising approach to address these problems, since the process can increase the stability of EOs/bioactive constituents, barricades their loss and considerably prevent their interaction with food matrices, thus preserving their original organoleptic qualities. The aim of this review is to provide wider and up-to-date overview on recent advances in nanoencapsulation of EOs/bioactive constituents with the objective to control mycotoxin contamination in food system. Further, the information on polymer characteristics, nanoencapsulation techniques, factors affecting the nanoencapsulation, applications of nanoencapsulated formulations, and characterization along with the study on their release kinetics and impacts on organoleptic attributes of food are discussed. Finally, the safety aspects of nanoencapsulated formulations for their safe utilization are also explored.

Assessment of nanoencapsulated Cananga odorata essential oil in chitosan nanopolymer as a green approach to boost the antifungal, antioxidant and in situ efficacy

In this study, a comparative efficacy of Cananga odorata EO (CoEO) and its nanoencapsulated formulation into chitosan nanoemulsion (CoEO-CsNe) against a toxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus (AF-M-K5) were investigated for the first time in order to determine its efficacy in preservation of stored food from fungal, aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) contamination and lipid peroxidation. GC and GC-MS analysis of CoEO revealed the presence of linalool (24.56%) and benzyl acetate (22.43%) as the major components. CoEO was encapsulated into chitosan nanoemulsion (CsNe) through ionic-gelation technique and characterized by High Resolution-Scanning Electron Microscopy (HR-SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. The CoEO-CsNe during in vitro investigation against A. flavus completely inhibited the growth and AFB₁ production at 1.0 μL/mL and 0.75 μL/mL, respectively. Additionally, CoEO-CsNe showed improved antioxidant activity against DPPH^• and ABTS^•+ with IC₅₀ value 0.93 and 0.72 μL/mL, respectively. Further, CoEO-CsNe suppressed fungal growth, AFB₁ secretion and lipid peroxidation in Arachis hypogea L. during in situ investigation without causing any adverse effect on seed germination. Overall results demonstrated that the CoEO-CsNe has potential of being utilized as a suitable plant based antifungal agent to improve the shelf-life of stored food against AFB₁ and lipid peroxidation mediated biodeterioration.

Zingiber zerumbet L. essential oil-based chitosan nanoemulsion as an efficient green preservative against fungi and aflatoxin B1 contamination

The present study envisages the potential application of chitosan-coated Zingiber zerumbet essential oil nanoemulsion (ZEO-CsNE) as green antimicrobial preservative against Aspergillus flavus, aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁ ), and lipid peroxidation of stored functional foods. GC-MS analysis of ZEO exhibited the abundance of cis-geraniol (15.53%) as the major component. ZEO-CsNE showed biphasic release profile during in vitro release study conducted for 10 days. The ZEO-CsNE inhibited the growth of A. flavus (strain AF-LHP-SH1) and AFB₁ production at 1.0 and 0.8 µL/mL, respectively. Interestingly, considerable reduction in ergosterol biosynthesis followed by enhanced leakage of vital cellular contents and methylglyoxal inhibition represents novel antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic mechanism of action, respectively. Further, ZEO-CsNE inhibited lipid peroxidation and AFB₁ production in postharvest Salvia hispanica seeds during in situ trial and presented favorable safety profile (median lethal dose [LD₅₀ ] = 29,114 µL/kg) for male mice. Based on overall observations, ZEO-CsNE could be recommended as a green antimicrobial substitute of synthetic preservatives for in vitro and in situ protection of functional food samples. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Food industries are facing enormous amount of burden coming from fungal and aflatoxin contamination that can cause severe adverse effects to humans. Essential oils (EOs) are well known for their food preservative efficacy; however, some limitations such as oxidative instability in open system may limit their application directly into food system. The encapsulation of the EOs into polymeric matrix could provide a barrier that will protect the EOs from degradation. This research could provide a basis for utilization of EO after encapsulation into chitosan nanoemulsion for industrial-scale application for preservation of stored functional foods from fungal and aflatoxin contamination.

Introducing nano/microencapsulated bioactive ingredients for extending the shelf-life of food products

The shelf-life of foods is affected by several aspects, mainly chemical and microbial events, resulting in a considerable decline in consumer's acceptance. There is an increasing interest to substitute synthetic preservatives with the plant-based bioactive ingredients which are safe and natural. However, full implementation of this replacement is postponed by some challenges associated with bioactive ingredients, including their low chemical stability, off-flavor, low solubility, and short-term effectiveness. Encapsulation could overcome these limitations. The present review explains current trends in applying natural encapsulated ingredients for food preservation based on a classified description including essential oils, plant extracts, phenolics, carotenoids, etc. and their application for extending food shelf-life mostly dealing with antimicrobial, ant-browning and antioxidant properties. Encapsulation techniques, especially nanoencapsulation, is a promising strategy to overcome their limitations. Moreover, better results are obtained using a combination of proteins and polysaccharides as wall materials than single polymers. The encapsulation method and type of encapsulants highly influences the releasing mechanism and physicochemical properties of bioactive ingredients. These factors together with optimizing the conditions of encapsulation process leads to a cost-effective and well encapsulated ingredient which is more efficient than its free form in shelf-life improvement. It has been shown that the well-designed encapsulation systems, finally, boost the shelf-life-promoting functions of the bioactive ingredients, mostly due to enhancing their solubility, homogeneity in food matrices and contact surface with deteriorative agents, and providing their prolonged presence over food storage and processing via increasing the thermal and processing stability of bioactive compounds, as well as controlling their release on food surfaces, or/and within food packages. To this end and given the numerous wall and bioactive core substances available, further studies are needed to evaluate the efficiency of many encapsulated forms of both conventional and novel bioactive ingredients in food shelf-life extending since the interactions and anti-spoiling behaviors of the ingredients in various encapsulation systems and foodstuffs are highly variable that should be optimized and characterized before any industrial application.

Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant

Medicinal use of Cannabis sativa L. has an extensive history and it was essential in the discovery of phytocannabinoids, including the Cannabis major psychoactive compound—Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC)—as well as the G-protein-coupled cannabinoid receptors (CBR), named cannabinoid receptor type-1 (CB1R) and cannabinoid receptor type-2 (CB2R), both part of the now known endocannabinoid system (ECS). Cannabinoids is a vast term that defines several compounds that have been characterized in three categories: (i) endogenous, (ii) synthetic, and (iii) phytocannabinoids, and are able to modulate the CBR and ECS. Particularly, phytocannabinoids are natural terpenoids or phenolic compounds derived from Cannabis sativa. However, these terpenoids and phenolic compounds can also be derived from other plants (non-cannabinoids) and still induce cannabinoid-like properties. Cannabimimetic ligands, beyond the Cannabis plant, can act as CBR agonists or antagonists, or ECS enzyme inhibitors, besides being able of playing a role in immune-mediated inflammatory and infectious diseases, neuroinflammatory, neurological, and neurodegenerative diseases, as well as in cancer, and autoimmunity by itself. In this review, we summarize and critically highlight past, present, and future progress on the understanding of the role of cannabinoid-like molecules, mainly terpenes, as prospective therapeutics for different pathological conditions.

Nanoencapsulated Monarda citriodora Cerv. ex Lag. essential oil as potential antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic agent against deterioration of stored functional foods

In vitro antifungal activity of the essential oil from Monarda citriodora (MCEO) with possible mode of action was evaluated against A. flavus (AF-LHP-SH1) and 15 other storage molds for controlling postharvest deterioration of stored functional food samples. The chemical profiling of MCEO as done through GC-MS analysis revealed caryophyllene (19.15%) as the major component. The MCEO showed broad spectrum fungitoxicity and completely inhibited the growth of all tested molds and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) production by AF-LHP-SH1 at 1.40 and 1.20 µL/mL, respectively. Plasma membrane damage and methylglyoxal inhibition was confirmed as the possible antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic mode of action of MCEO. MCEO exhibited remarkable antioxidant activity with IC₅₀ value 2.24 μL/mL as determined through DPPH assay and did not cause adverse effect on seed germination. In addition, the MCEO was encapsulated into chitosan nanoparticle, characterized (SEM, FTIR, XRD) and assessed for their potential against inhibition of growth and AFB₁ production. MCEO after encapsulation exhibited enhanced efficacy inhibiting fungal growth and AFB₁ production by AF-LHP-SH1 at 0.6 and 0.5 µL/mL, respectively. Encapsulated MCEO may be recommended as novel preservative to extend the shelf life of stored functional food samples.