Effect of acidity regulators on acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural formation in French fries: The dual role of pH and acid radical ion

Role of galacturonic acid in acrylamide formation: Insights from structural analysis

Acrylamide (AA) is a neoformed compound in heated foods, mainly produced between asparagine (Asn) and glucose (Glc) during the Maillard reaction. Galacturonic acid (GalA), the major component of pectin, exhibits high activity in AA formation. This study investigated the pathway for AA formation between GalA and Asn. Three possible pathways were proposed: 1) The carbonyl group of GalA directly interacts with Asn to produce AA; 2) GalA undergoes an oxidative cleavage reaction to release α-dicarbonyl compounds, which subsequently leads to AA production; 3) 5-formyl-2-furancarboxylic acid, the thermal degradation product of GalA, reacts with Asn to generate AA. Structural analysis revealed that the COOH group in GalA accelerated intramolecular protonation and electron transfer processes, thereby increasing the formation of AA precursors such as decarboxylated Schiff base and α-dicarbonyl compounds, promoting AA formation. This study provides a theoretical basis and new insights into the formation and control of AA.

Assessment of the Content of Glycoalkaloids in Potato Snacks Made from Colored Potatoes, Resulting from the Action of Organic Acids and Thermal Processing

Glycoalkaloids (TGAs, total glycoalkaloids), toxic secondary metabolites, are found in potatoes (110-335 mg·kg-1 DW), mainly in the peel. Colorful, unpeeled potatoes are an innovative raw material for the production of snacks which are poorly tested in terms of their glycoalkaloid content. Third-generation snacks and French fries made from red-fleshed Mulberry Beauty (MB) and purple-fleshed Double Fun (DF) potatoes were produced with the use of 1% solutions of ascorbic, citric, lactic, malic, and tartaric acids to stabilize the structure of anthocyanins in the raw material and maintain their color in obtained products. The influence of the type of acid and thermal processes, like frying, microwaving, and baking, on the content of glycoalkaloids in ready-made products was examined. Only 0.45-1.26 mg·100 g-1 of TGA was found in pellet snacks and 1.32-1.71 mg·100 g-1 in French fries. Soaking blanched potatoes in organic acid solution reduced the α-chaconine content by 91-97% in snacks and by 57-93% in French fries in relation to the raw material to the greatest extent after the use of malic acid and the DF variety. The effect of lactic and citric acid was also beneficial, especially in the production of baked French fries from MB potatoes.

Identifying high-risk factors and mitigation strategies for acrylamide formation in air-fried lotus root chips: Impact of cooking parameters, including temperature, time, presoaking, and seasoning

This study was conducted to identify high-risk factors and mitigation strategies for acrylamide formation in air-fried lotus root chips by studying the impact of various cooking parameters, including temperature, time, presoaking, and pre-seasoning treatments. The temperature and time had a surprisingly high impact on acrylamide formation. The chips prepared at high temperatures with longer cooking times contained an extremely high acrylamide content, reaching 12,786 ng/g (e.g., 170°C/19 min). A particularly concerning discovery was that the chips with extremely high acrylamide content (up to 17 times higher than the EU benchmark level for potato chips) did not appear overcooked or taste burnt. Higher cooking temperatures required shorter cooking times to properly cook lotus root chips for consumption. A high temperature with a short cooking time (170°C/13 min) greatly benefited acrylamide reduction compared to low temperature with a long cooking time (150°C/19 min). Presoaking in a 0.1% acetic acid solution and pre-seasoning with 1% salt reduced acrylamide levels by 61% and 47%, respectively. However, presoaking in water, vinegar solution, and citric acid solution did not significantly decrease the acrylamide content in the chips. Furthermore, some seasonings significantly increased acrylamide levels (up to 7.4 times higher). For the first time, these findings underscore the high risks associated with air-frying lotus root chips without considering these factors. This study also provides proper air-frying parameters and pretreatment strategies for minimizing acrylamide formation in air-fried lotus chips.

Acrylamide formation in air-fried versus deep and oven-fried potatoes

Introduction

Present study investigates the effects of different home pre-treatment processes and cooking techniques on the acrylamide content of fried potatoes.

Methods

Potato sticks were prepared in two different pre-treatment ways (washing and soaking) and cooked with three other techniques (air frying, deep frying, and oven frying). Acrylamide analyses were performed on cooked potatoes using an LC-MS/MS method.

Results

The highest acrylamide content was found in potatoes cooked using the air fryer (12.19 ± 7.03 μg/kg). This was followed by deep frying (8.94 ± 9.21 μg/kg) and oven frying (7.43 ± 3.75 μg/kg). However, the difference between the acrylamide contents of the potatoes according to the cooking methods was not statistically significant. The acrylamide content of the potatoes that were subjected to soaking in all three ways was lower than the potatoes that were not soaked and only washed. In the deep-frying method, it was found statistically significant that the soaked potatoes contained less acrylamide (p = 0.029).

Discussion

It is important to highlight the relatively low acrylamide levels found in oven-frying, lower than air frying in both washing and soaking groups in the present study. Although air fryers, which have become widely used as an alternative to deep frying in recent years, provide French fries with less oil, their role in the formation of acrylamide should be further investigated.

Acrylamide; a neurotoxin in popcorns: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Acrylamide is a known neurotoxic compound for humans. Foods that have high concentrations of acrylamide need to be identified. One of the food products containing acrylamide is popcorn. Popcorn is an important source of snacks for children, especially students. The presented study is a systematic review and meta-analysis of the level of acrylamide in popcorn. The search was done in different databases with the keywords; acrylamide, popcorn, popped corn. 27 articles were found by searching various databases. After initial screening and full text evaluation, 8 articles were selected for systematic review and 6 articles for meta-analysis. The amount of acrylamide in this product was in the range of 1,017.7-106 μg/kg. Microwaved corn contains lower amounts of acrylamide than other methods of preparation. The type of popcorn also had an effect on the amount of acrylamide with Meta-regression. It was found that sweet popcorn contains higher amounts of acrylamide. The overall value of acrylamide concentration in popcorns was calculated to be 459.6 ± 220.3 μg/kg. This amount is high and requires measures to reduce the amount of acrylamide.

Two decades of research in dietary acrylamide: What do we know today

After nearly two decades since acrylamide was first raised as a potential safety issue in foods, significant progress has been made in understanding its formation during cooking, how to reduce levels in the most concerned foods, and the possible cancer risk to humans. Despite the huge wealth of knowledge gathered on this topic over the past years, a few new discoveries in occurrence, mitigation, analysis and risk assessment are worthy to note. This short review highlights the salient novelties pertaining to acrylamide, particularly in the areas of formation & analysis, existing and possible future regulations in the European Union, and finally considerations that may lead to possibly revisiting the toxicity of acrylamide and the main metabolite, glycidamide.

Impact of Some Enzymatic Treatments on Acrylamide Content in Biscuits

Since its discovery in many heat-treatment foods in 2002, many efforts have been made to reduce acrylamide levels in foods. Methods to reduce acrylamide levels by reducing Maillard reaction products have been considered. However, baking cookies produces acrylamide, a carcinogenic compound. This study aimed to use a new quantitative index and formula for L-asparaginase, glucose oxidase, their 1:1 blending enzymes, baker’s yeast, and green tea powder (0.5 g/kg wheat flour) at a new proposed temperature of 37 °C for 30 min to reduce acrylamide production in biscuits and bakery products using new indicators such as asparagine reduction (%), the asparagine/acrylamide ratio, acrylamide reduction (%), and the asparagine/reducing sugar ratio. The highest acrylamide concentrations were reduced from 865 mg/kg in the blank sample (BT0) to 260 and 215 mg/kg in the mixed enzyme powder (1:1) (BT3)- and BT4-treated samples, respectively. The biscuit samples treated with 0.5 g/kg L-asparaginase reduced the acrylamide levels by approximately 67.63%, while the BT3 samples showed acrylamide levels of 69.94% and asparagine levels of 68.75% and 47%, respectively, compared with percentage in the untreated sample (blank), 95%. This percentage was 54.16% for the BT4 samples. The results showed that acrylamide was formed during baking, and all treatment samples inhibited its formation, making it possible to produce foods with low levels of acrylamide in starchy foods in the food industry at 37 °C for 30 min and preserving the quality and nutritional value of the final product. It can be used as a specialty food or functional food and protects school-agechildren, as well as youth on campus, from approximately 70–80% of their daily intake of acrylamide.

Effects of Air Frying on French Fries: The Indication Role of Physicochemical Properties on the Formation of Maillard Hazards, and the Changes of Starch Digestibility

This study focused on the formation of Maillard hazards in air fried fries, highlighting the correlation between the resultant physical properties of the fries and the formation of Maillard hazards. In the meantime, the effects of air frying on the in vitro starch digestibility of fries were explored. Potato strips were fried at various temperatures (180-200°C) and time (12-24 min). Results indicated that the extent of browning, hardness, and the contents of Maillard hazards (acrylamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, methylglyoxal, and glyoxal) all increased steadily with air frying temperature and time. Moisture content were negatively correlated (p < 0.001) with Maillard hazards content and physicochemical properties except for L^* with the correlation coefficients range from -0.53 to 0.94, and positively correlated with L^* value with correlation coefficient was 0.91, hence, reducing the Maillard hazard exposure while maintaining the desired product quality can be achieved by controlling the moisture content of the air fried French fries. Compared with deep frying (180°C-6 min), air frying decreased acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural content with the maximum reduction rate were 47.31 and 57.04%, respectively. In addition, the in vitro digestion results suggested that air frying resulted in higher levels of slowly digestible starch (48.54-58.42%) and lower levels of resistant starch (20.08-29.34%) as compared to those from deep frying (45.59 ± 4.89 and 35.22 ± 0.65%, respectively), which might contribute to more balanced blood sugar levels after consumption. Based on the above results, it was concluded that air frying can reduce the formation of food hazards and was relatively healthier.

Influence of Water, NaCl and Citric Acid Soaking Pre-Treatments on Acrylamide Content in French Fries Prepared in Domestic Conditions

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of some pre-treatment applications toward acrylamide mitigation in potatoes fried in domestic conditions modeled after those found in Romania, by using a pan and a fryer. Before being fried in a pan, potato strips were treated in one of the following ways: soaked in cold water for 15, 60, and 120 min (a); soaked in hot water at different combinations of temperatures and durations (60, 70, 80 °C for 5, 10, 15 min) (b); soaked in a NaCl solution (c), and; in a citric acid solution (d) both solutions of 0.05% and 1% concentration for 30 min. For potatoes fried in a fryer, the (a) pre-treatment and soaking in water at 80 °C for 5, 10, and 15 min were applied. Untreated samples were used as a control. French fries were analyzed in terms of moisture and acrylamide content, color, and texture parameters. The pre-treatments applied reduced the acrylamide content in French fries by 4–97% when fried in the pan and by 25–47% when fried in the fryer. Acrylamide content of French fries was negatively correlated with L* parameter and moisture content and positively correlated with a* parameter. The pre-treatments applied can be used successfully by consumers to reduce acrylamide content.