Consumer acceptability of interventions to reduce Campylobacter in the poultry food chain

Added insult to injury? The response of meat-associated pathogens to proposed antimicrobial interventions

Modern requirements for 'green label' meat products have led to the design of novel antimicrobial innovations which prioritise quality, safety and longevity. Plasma-functionalised water (PFW), ultraviolet light and natural antimicrobial compositions have been investigated and optimised for control of foodborne pathogens like Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. However, given the adaptive mechanisms present in bacteria under external stresses, it is imperative to understand the effect that sublethal treatment may have on the bacterial transcriptome. In this study, Salmonella Typhimurium and C. jejuni were treated with sublethal doses of ultraviolet light, a citrus juice/essential oil marinade, and 'spark' or 'glow' cold plasma generation system-produced PFW. Immediately after treatment, cells were lysed and RNA was extracted and purified. mRNA was converted to cDNA by reverse transcription-PCR and sequenced by an Illumina MiSeq® system. Sequences were filtered and analysed using the Tuxedo workflow. Sublethal treatment of Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella Typhimurium led to increased immediate cellular and metabolic activity, as well as diversification in protein and metabolic functioning. There was further expression of pathogenesis and virulence-associated traits associated with spark PFW and marinade treatment of Salmonella Typhimurium. However, similar concerns were not raised with glow PFW or UV-treated samples. This study provides science-based evidence of the efficacy of multi-hurdle antimicrobial system using green-label marinades and PFW or UV to inactivate pathogens without upregulating virulence traits in surviving cells. This study will inform policymakers and food industry stakeholders and reinforces the need to incorporate in-line novel technologies to ensure consumer safety. KEY POINTS: • Salmonella and C. jejuni showed increased cell activity in immediate response to stress. • Virulence genes showed increased expression when treated with natural antimicrobials and sPFW. • Reduced immediate transcriptomic response to gPFW and UV treatment indicates lower risk.

Genomic tailoring of autogenous poultry vaccines to reduce Campylobacter from farm to fork

Campylobacter is a leading cause of food-borne gastroenteritis worldwide, linked to the consumption of contaminated poultry meat. Targeting this pathogen at source, vaccines for poultry can provide short-term caecal reductions in Campylobacter numbers in the chicken intestine. However, this approach is unlikely to reduce Campylobacter in the food chain or human incidence. This is likely as vaccines typically target only a subset of the high genomic strain diversity circulating among chicken flocks, and rapid evolution diminishes vaccine efficacy over time. To address this, we used a genomic approach to develop a whole-cell autogenous vaccine targeting isolates harbouring genes linked to survival outside of the host. We hyper-immunised a whole major UK breeder farm to passively target offspring colonisation using maternally-derived antibody. Monitoring progeny, broiler flocks revealed a near-complete shift in the post-vaccination Campylobacter population with an ~50% reduction in isolates harbouring extra-intestinal survival genes and a significant reduction of Campylobacter cells surviving on the surface of meat. Based on these findings, we developed a logistic regression model that predicted that vaccine efficacy could be extended to target 65% of a population of clinically relevant strains. Immuno-manipulation of poultry microbiomes towards less harmful commensal isolates by competitive exclusion, has major potential for reducing pathogens in the food production chain.

Chinese Consumers' Acceptance of Novel Technologies Designed To Control Foodborne Bacteria

ABSTRACT

Chinese consumers (n = 604) were asked three times to rate their acceptance of traditional thermal processing and several newer technologies (high pressure processing, irradiation, bacteriophages, antimicrobial packaging, pulsed electric fields, and rinsing meat carcasses with antimicrobial solutions) designed to control foodborne bacteria in food (i) based on their existing knowledge, (ii) after the provision of information about L. monocytogenes, and (iii) after further reading a brief description of the technology. Thermal processing (6.00 of 7 on Likert scale) and high pressure processing (5.73 of 7) were rated the most acceptable technologies, and rinsing with antimicrobial solutions (4.43 of 7) was rated the least acceptable technology. Information outlining the benefits of a technology had a larger positive effect on acceptance of every novel technology discussed (increases of 0.14 to 0.49 units depending on the technology) than information about L. monocytogenes and a brief description of the technology. This research has shown that providing information about foodborne bacteria and a technology designed to control them will improve consumers' acceptance of the technology, with the provision of information being of most importance for technologies for which the consumers are less familiar. Chinese consumers accepted or rejected a food technology for a variety of reasons; however, consumers with a greater awareness of foodborne bacteria rated the acceptability of novel technologies designed to kill bacteria higher than those with a low awareness (0.56 to 1.71 units depending on the technology). The results of this research will be of benefit to food companies considering adopting novel technologies to control foodborne bacteria because they provide insights that will enable them to develop more effective communication and implementation strategies.

HIGHLIGHTS

Latest Developments in Edible Coatings on Minimally Processed Fruits and Vegetables: A Review

The food industry nowadays is facing new challenges in terms of sustainability and health implications of packaging and processing techniques. Due to their desire for new and natural products coupled with changes in lifestyle, consumers are looking for food products that have been less processed but possess longer shelf life and maintain nutritional and sensorial proprieties during storage. These requirements represent real challenges when dealing with highly perishable food products, such as fruits and vegetables. Thus, in recent years, edible coatings have been intensively developed and studied because of their capacity to improve the quality, shelf life, safety, and functionality of the treated products. Edible coatings can be applied through different techniques, like dipping, spraying, or coating, in order to control moisture transfer, gas exchange, or oxidative processes. Furthermore, some functional ingredients can be incorporated into an edible matrix and applied on the surface of foods, thus enhancing safety or even nutritional and sensory attributes. In the case of coated fruits and vegetables, their quality parameters, such as color, firmness, microbial load, decay ratio, weight loss, sensorial attributes, and nutritional parameters, which are very specific to the type of products and their storage conditions, should be carefully monitored. This review attempts to summarize recent studies of different edible coatings (polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and composites) as carriers of functional ingredients (antimicrobials, texture enhancers, and nutraceuticals) applied on different minimally processed fruits and vegetables, highlighting the coating ingredients, the application methods and the effects on food shelf life and quality.

From Stable to Table: Determination of German Consumer Perceptions of the Role of Multiple Aspects of Poultry Production on Meat Quality and Safety

ABSTRACT

Contamination with potentially pathogenic microorganisms may occur at all stages of the food chain. We conducted a representative cross-sectional survey of 1,008 consumers aged 16 years and older in Germany via an online panel. The aim was to assess the perception of consumers regarding the influence of aspects of meat production on the safety and quality of meat. More than 70% of the participants indicated that poultry fattening farms had a high or very high influence on meat safety, followed by cooks or meat preparers (66.3%). Meat consumption was significantly associated with a high perception of the influence of cooks or meat preparers (P = 0.025). The oldest participants were almost three times as likely to vote high influence and six times as likely to select very high influence (instead of no or limited) as the youngest participants (high influence: odds ratio [OR] = 2.89, P = 0.016; very high influence: OR = 6.06, P < 0.001). Of all participants, 78.1% believed organic farming had a positive influence on the safety of meat compared with conventional farming. Participants older than 60 years voted significantly more frequently than youngest participants (16 to 19 years) that organic farming had no influence (P = 0.006, OR = 5.71) or a positive influence (P = 0.007, OR 3.93) on meat safety. In addition, it could be shown that most consumers believed that irradiation of meat had a negative influence on the safety of meat. In conclusion, consumers were aware that many aspects were important for food safety and quality. The influence of organic farming compared with conventional farming, as well as the influence of irradiation, was often incorrectly assessed by consumers. Consumers seemed to need more information on sensitive issues, such as the different types of farming or the effects of irradiation, to better assess the impact of these aspects on the safety and quality of meat.

HIGHLIGHTS

Explaining Consumer Intentions for Foods with Antioxidant Properties: Predictors of Choice and Purchase Barriers

Today, food products not only should serve the source of main nourishment but also must minimize the risk of negative impact on the human body. Products enriched with antioxidants can be referred to such category. For food producers, the development of products “for health” is usually connected with significant investment, whereas the final success of innovative products does not always meet the expectations. The greatest part of such products is withdrawn from the market during the first year. It is important for manufacturers to learn consumer behavior in order to ensure sale growth and a stable market position. The purpose of this study was to study consumer reception of products containing antioxidants. (It is important to conduct market research to identify the needs of buyers in order to maintain a stable position in the market. In order to study this issue, we analyzed the consumer perception of foods with antioxidant properties.) We studied the consumer perception of products with antioxidant properties with regard to choice predictors and barriers for purchasing, which finally determine the success of the product on the market. For this purpose, we conducted a survey of 721 consumers of the South Urals. The results of the statistical analysis done with the help of SPSS proved that South Ural consumers in general are ready to purchase products containing antioxidants. Besides, producers must bring information concerning the real value of the product and win the consumer trust and confidence as far as these are the main predictors determining the choice for purchasing the products containing antioxidants. Misunderstanding of the role antioxidants play in the human body may lead to perception of risk concerning consumption of such products and rejection of the purchase.

The Data Behind Risk Analysis of Campylobacter Jejuni and Campylobacter Coli Infections

Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli are major causes of food-borne enteritis in humans. Poultry meat is known to be responsible for a large proportion of cases of human campylobacteriosis. However, other food-borne, environmental and animal sources are frequently associated with the disease in humans as well. Human campylobacteriosis causes gastroenteritis that in most cases is self-limiting. Nevertheless, the burden of the disease is relatively large compared with other food-borne diseases, which is mostly due to rare but long-lasting symptoms related to immunological sequelae. In order to pave the way to improved surveillance and control of human campylobacteriosis, we review here the data that is typically used for risk analysis to quantify the risk and disease burden, identify specific surveillance strategies and assist in choosing the most effective control strategies. Such data are mostly collected from the literature, and their nature is discussed here, for each of the three processes that are essential for a complete risk analysis procedure: risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. Of these, the first, risk assessment, is most dependent on data, and this process is subdivided into the steps of hazard identification, hazard characterization, exposure assessment and risk characterization. For each of these steps of risk assessment, information from published material that is typically collected will be summarized here. In addition, surveillance data are highly valuable for risk assessments. Different surveillance systems are employed in different countries, which can make international comparison of data challenging. Risk analysis typically results in targeted control strategies, and these again differ between countries. The applied control strategies are as yet not sufficient to eradicate human campylobacteriosis. The surveillance tools of Campylobacter in humans and exposure sources in place in different countries are briefly reviewed to better understand the Campylobacter dynamics and guide control strategies. Finally, the available control measures on different risk factors and exposure sources are presented.

Management Strategies for Prevention of Campylobacter Infections Through the Poultry Food Chain: A European Perspective

Numerous studies point out that at present, a complete elimination of Campylobacter species in the poultry food chain is not feasible. Thus, the current aim should be to establish control measures and intervention strategies to minimize the occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in livestock (esp. poultry flocks) and to reduce the quantitative Campylobacter burden along the food chain in animals and subsequently in foods. The most effective measures to mitigate Campylobacter focus on the primary production stage. Nevertheless, measures applied during slaughter and processing complement the general meat hygiene approaches by reducing fecal contamination during slaughtering and processing and as a consequence help to reduce Campylobacter in poultry meat. Such intervention measures at slaughter and processing level would include general hygienic improvements, technological innovations and/or decontamination measures that are applied at single slaughter or processing steps. In particular, approaches that do not focus on a single intervention measure would need to be based on a thorough process of evaluation, and potential combinatory effects have to be modeled and tested. Finally, the education of all stakeholders (including retailers, food handlers and consumers) is required and will help to increase awareness for the presence of foodborne pathogens in raw meat and meat products and can thus aid in the development of the required good kitchen hygiene.

Consumer acceptance of novel food technologies

Novel food technologies are important for food security, safety and sustainability. Consumers, however, are often hesitant to accept them. In this narrative Review, we organize the research describing how heuristics and individual differences among consumers influence the acceptance of agri-food technologies. Associations evoked by a food technology, its perceived naturalness and trust in the industry using it influence consumer acceptance. Food neophobia, disgust sensitivity and cultural values are crucial personality factors for explaining individual differences. Using gene technology, nanotechnology, cultured meat and food irradiation as cases, we explore factors that may explain consumers' acceptance or lack of acceptance. Climate change, food supply shocks caused by crises such as pandemics and population growth are imminent threats to the food system. Therefore, disruptive food technologies will be needed to progress towards a more resilient food system. Taking into account the factors influencing consumers' perceptions of novel food technologies during the early stage of development and introduction will hopefully result in a higher acceptance of such technologies.

A Review of Salmonella and Campylobacter in Broiler Meat: Emerging Challenges and Food Safety Measures

Poultry is one of the largest sources of animal-based protein in the United States. Poultry processing has grown from a small local network of plants to nearly 500 plants nationwide. Two of the most persistent bacteria in poultry processing are Salmonella and Campylobacter. It was not until the introduction of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point systems in 1996 that major efforts to reduce bacterial contamination were developed. Traditionally, chlorine has been the industry standard for decontaminating chicken meat. However, antimicrobials such as peracetic acid, cetylpyridinium chloride, and acidified sodium chlorite have replaced chlorine as primary antimicrobials. Despite current interventions, the emergence of stress-tolerant and biofilm-forming Salmonella and Campylobacter is of primary concern. In an effort to offset growing tolerance from microbes, novel techniques such as cold plasma treatment, electrostatic spraying, and bacteriophage-based applications have been investigated as alternatives to conventional treatments, while new chemical antimicrobials such as Amplon and sodium ferrate are investigated as well. This review provides an overview of poultry processing in the United States, major microbes in poultry processing, current interventions, emerging issues, and emerging technologies in antimicrobial treatments.

Strategies and novel technologies to control Campylobacter in the poultry chain: A review

Campylobacteriosis is one of the most common bacterial infections worldwide causing economic costs. The high prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in poultry meat is a result of several contamination and cross-contamination sources through the production chain. Moreover, survival mechanisms, such as biofilm formation, viable but nonculturable state, and antimicrobial resistance, enable its persistence during food processing. Therefore, mitigation strategies are necessary in order to avoid and/or inactivate Campylobacter at farm, abattoir, industry, and retail level. In this review, a number of potential strategies and novel technologies that could reduce the prevalence of Campylobacter in poultry meat have been identified and evaluated to provide a useful overview. At farm level for instance, biosecurity, bacteriocins, probiotics, feed and water additives, bacteriophages, and vaccination could potentially reduce colonization in chicken flocks. However, current technologies used in the chicken slaughter and processing industry may be less effective against this foodborne pathogen. Novel technologies and strategies such as cold plasma, ultraviolet light, high-intensity light pulses, pulsed electric fields, antimicrobials, and modified atmosphere packaging are discussed in this review for reducing Campylobacter contamination. Although these measures have achieved promising results, most have not been integrated within processing operations due to a lack of knowledge or an unwillingness to implement these into existing processing systems. Furthermore, a combination of existing and novel strategies might be required to decrease the prevalence of this pathogen in poultry meat and enhance food safety. Therefore, further research will be essential to assess the effectiveness of all these strategies.

Bacteriophages to Control Campylobacter in Commercially Farmed Broiler Chickens, in Australia

This study describes the development and use of bacteriophage cocktails to control Campylobacter in broiler chickens, in a commercial setting, in Queensland Australia, following the birds from farm to the processing plant. The components of the bacteriophage cocktails were selected to be effective against the maximum number of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolates encountered on SE Queensland farms. Farms were identified that had suitable Campylobacter target populations and phage were undetectable 1 week prior to the intended treatment. Cocktails of phages were administered at 47 days of age. Groups of study birds were slaughtered the following day, on-farm, at the end of flock transport to the plant, and at processing (approximately 28 h post-treatment). On Farm A, the phage treatment significantly reduced Campylobacter levels in the ceca at the farm in the range of 1-3 log10 CFU/g (p = 0.007), compared to mock treated controls. However, individual birds sampled on farm (1/10) or following transport (2/10) exhibited high cecal Campylobacter counts with low phage titers, suggesting that treatment periods > 24 h may be required to ensure phage replication for effective biocontrol in vivo. At the time of the trial the control birds in Farm B were phage positive despite having been negative one week earlier. There was no significant difference in the cecal Campylobacter counts between the treatment and control groups following treatment but a fall of 1.7 log10 CFU/g was observed from that determined from birds collected the previous week (p = 0.0004). Campylobacter isolates from both farms retained sensitivity to the treatment phages. These trials demonstrated bacteriophages sourced from Queensland farms have the potential to reduce intestinal Campylobacter levels in market ready broiler chickens.

Campylobacter contamination of broilers: the role of transport and slaughterhouse

Campylobacter is one of the most important causative agents of foodborne illnesses worldwide. The poultry reservoir is the main source of Campylobacter. Within the broiler production chain, campylobacters can only multiply in the chicken's intestinal tract. Intervention at farm level to reduce Campylobacter is thus preferred, but despite extensive study, no highly effective solutions have been found to combat Campylobacter at farm level. Slaughterhouses are experiencing great pressure to deliver carcasses with low Campylobacter contamination even when they receive and slaughter Campylobacter colonized flocks. Since 2018, a process hygiene criterion (EU 2017/1495) with the critical limit of <1000 cfu/g neck skin has been implemented in EU Member States based on the calculation done at the time of the study that human campylobacteriosis cases could be halved if all carcasses would comply with a criterion of <1000 cfu/g neck skin. This review covers Campylobacter contamination of broiler carcasses from transport through the different slaughter steps. Possible intervention methods during slaughter are discussed with a focus on the European situation, where chemicals are not allowed to disinfect carcasses.

Prioritization of Chicken Meat Processing Interventions on the Basis of Reducing the Salmonella Residual Relative Risk

Protecting public health by controlling Salmonella in chicken meat products continues to be a challenge to both industry and policymakers. Studies evaluating the combined use of commercially available antimicrobial interventions are scarce. The aim of this work was to develop a risk-based prioritization framework to rank chicken meat processing interventions that achieve the greatest Salmonella relative risk reduction. A baseline model characterizing the current U.S. broiler industry food safety intervention practices was created from direct observation of processes and expert elicitation. Results showed the combination of chlorine at the bird wash station and peroxyacetic acid at the on-line reprocessing and chill stages as the most common U.S. processing scenario. Irradiation at packaging and acidified sodium chlorite at evisceration were the most effective single processing interventions (98.8 and 91.6% risk reduction, respectively); however, no single intervention was able to comply with the current Food Safety and Inspection Service Salmonella postchill performance standards. The combination of peroxyacetic acid in at least one of the chicken processing stages with the current set of U.S. baseline interventions achieved >99% Salmonella relative risk reduction and ensured Food Safety and Inspection Service compliance. Adding more than one intervention to the U.S. current practice did not enhance (<2%) the overall Salmonella risk reduction. This study can help poultry processors to prioritize food safety interventions to maximize Salmonella reduction and public health protection.

Cost of Illness for Five Major Foodborne Illnesses and Sequelae in Sweden

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this study was to derive cost estimates of five major foodborne illnesses (campylobacteriosis, salmonellosis, enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), yersiniosis and shigellosis) in Sweden. These estimates provide a necessary contribution to perform future cost-benefit analyses aimed at reducing the burden of foodborne disease. A secondary aim was to obtain estimates of the true number of cases that occur in the community, thus providing necessary ground for calculating costs.

METHODS

The true number of cases for each foodborne illness was simulated by multiplying the reported number of cases by sequential multipliers, one for each potential source of information loss about a case. This assessment of the true number of cases was then used to estimate the number of cases of sequelae for each illness. An incidence-based analysis was then used to calculate direct medical and non-medical costs, as well as indirect costs. Data for estimating the true number of cases for each illness were primarily based on an expert panel, while the derivation of costs mainly utilized national registries, databases and published literature.

RESULTS

The estimated number of cases was between 7- and 11-fold higher than the reported number of cases, indicating the importance of taking information loss into account when calculating costs. By far the most common pathogen of the five was campylobacter, with an estimated 101,719 (90% credibility interval [CI] 59,640-158,025) human cases occurring annually. For salmonella, 19,678 (90% CI 8394-40,456) cases were estimated to occur each year, while the other three pathogens were less common, with a yearly incidence of approximately 2500-5500 cases each. The total cost for the five pathogens (including sequelae) amounted to €142 million annually. Campylobacter was the most costly pathogen, representing 69% of the total costs. Salmonellosis and EHEC constituted 18 and 9% of these costs, respectively, while yersiniosis and shigellosis represented approximately 2% each. Costs for sequelae were significant and accounted for approximately 50% of the total costs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our simulations indicated that campylobacter infection was more common and more costly than salmonella, EHEC, yersinia and shigella combined. Estimated costs for all illnesses were highly influenced by (1) considering potential information losses about cases in the population (which increased costs 7- to 11-fold), and (2) taking account of post-infection sequelae (which doubled the costs).

Quantification of Campylobacter jejuni contamination on chicken carcasses in France

Highly prevalent in poultry, Campylobacter is a foodborne pathogen which remains the primary cause of enteritis in humans. Several studies have determined prevalence and contamination level of this pathogen throughout the food chain. However it is generally performed in a deterministic way without considering heterogeneity of contamination level. The purpose of this study was to quantify, using probabilistic tools, the contamination level of Campylobacter spp. on chicken carcasses after air-chilling step in several slaughterhouses in France. From a dataset (530 data) containing censored data (concentration <10CFU/g), several factors were considered, including the month of sampling, the farming method (standard vs certified) and the sampling area (neck vs leg). All probabilistic analyses were performed in R using fitdistrplus, mc2d and nada packages. The uncertainty (i.e. error) generated by the presence of censored data was small (ca 1 log₁₀) in comparison to the variability (i.e. heterogeneity) of contamination level (3 log₁₀ or more), strengthening the probabilistic analysis and facilitating result interpretation. The sampling period and sampling area (neck/leg) had a significant effect on Campylobacter contamination level. More precisely, two "seasons" were distinguished: one from January to May, another one from June to December. During the June-to-December season, the mean Campylobacter concentration was estimated to 2.6 [2.4; 2.8] log₁₀ (CFU/g) and 1.8 [1.5; 2.0] log₁₀ (CFU/g) for neck and leg, respectively. The probability of having >1000CFU/g (higher limit of European microbial criterion) was estimated to 35.3% and 12.6%, for neck and leg, respectively. In contrast, during January-to-May season, the mean contamination level was estimated to 1.0 [0.6; 1.3] log₁₀ (CFU/g) and 0.6 [0.3; 0.9] log₁₀ (CFU/g) for neck and leg, respectively. The probability of having >1000CFU/g was estimated to 13.5% and 2.0% for neck and leg, respectively. An accurate quantification of contamination level enables industrials to better adapt their processing and hygiene practices. These results will also help in refining exposure assessment models.

Trends in microbial control techniques for poultry products

Fresh poultry meat and poultry products are highly perishable foods and high potential sources of human infection due to the presence of several foodborne pathogens. Focusing on the microbial control of poultry products, the food industry generally implements numerous preventive measures based on the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) food safety management system certification together with technological steps, such as refrigeration coupled to modified atmosphere packaging that are able to control identified potential microbial hazards during food processing. However, in recent years, to meet the demand of consumers for minimally processed, high-quality, and additive-free foods, technologies are emerging associated with nonthermal microbial inactivation, such as high hydrostatic pressure, irradiation, and natural alternatives, such as biopreservation or the incorporation of natural preservatives in packaging materials. These technologies are discussed throughout this article, emphasizing their pros and cons regarding the control of poultry microbiota and their effects on poultry sensory properties. The discussion for each of the preservation techniques mentioned will be provided with as much detail as the data and studies provided in the literature for poultry meat and products allow. These new approaches, on their own, have proved to be effective against a wide range of microorganisms in poultry meat. However, since some of these emergent technologies still do not have full consumer's acceptability and, taking into consideration the hurdle technology concept for poultry processing, it is suggested that they will be used as combined treatments or, more frequently, in combination with modified atmosphere packaging.

Characterization of the Microbiome along the Gastrointestinal Tract of Growing Turkeys

The turkey microbiome is largely understudied, despite its relationship with bird health and growth, and the prevalence of human pathogens such as Campylobacter spp. In this study we investigated the microbiome within the small intestine (SI), caeca (C), large intestine (LI), and cloaca (CL) of turkeys at 6, 10, and 16 weeks of age. Eight turkeys were dissected within each age category and the contents of the SI, C, LI, and CL were harvested. 16S rDNA based QPCR was performed on all samples and samples for the four locations within three birds/age group were sequenced using ion torrent-based sequencing of the 16S rDNA. Sequencing data showed on a genus level, an abundance of Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, and Clostridium XI (38.2, 28.1, and 13.0% respectively) irrespective of location and age. The caeca exhibited the greatest microbiome diversity throughout the development of the turkey. PICRUSt data predicted an array of bacterial function, with most differences being apparent in the caeca of the turkeys as they matured. QPCR revealed that the caeca within 10 week old birds, contained the most Campylobacter spp. Understanding the microbial ecology of the turkey gastrointestinal tract is essential in terms of understanding production efficiency and in order to develop novel strategies for targeting Campylobacter spp.

World Market Development and Consumer Acceptance of Irradiation Technology

Food irradiation is an efficient technology that can be used to ensure food safety by eliminating insects and pathogens to prolong the shelf life. The process could be applied to fresh or frozen products without affecting the nutritional value. Presently more than 60 countries have adopted the technology. However, the technology adaptation differs from one country to another and, in some cases, consumers' misunderstanding and lack of acceptance may hinder the technology adaptation process. This review summarizes the development of irradiation treatment worldwide and consumer attitudes towards the introduction of this technology. Also, the wholesomeness, beneficial effects, and regulation of irradiation are assessed.

The efficacy of a commercial competitive exclusion product on Campylobacter colonization in broiler chickens in a 5-week pilot-scale study

The efficacy of the commercial competitive exclusion product Broilact against Campylobacter jejuni was evaluated in broiler chickens in a 5-week pilot-scale study. Newly-hatched broiler chicks were brought from a commercial hatchery. After arrival 50 seeder chicks were challenged orally with approximately 10(3) cfu of C. jejuni, wing marked, and placed back in a delivery box and moved to a separate room. The rest of the chicks (contact chicks) were placed in floor pens, 100 chicks per pen. Birds in two pens were treated orally on the day of hatch with the commercial competitive exclusion (CE) product Broilact, and three pens were left untreated. The following day 10 seeder chicks were introduced into the Broilact treated and untreated control pens. One pen was left both untreated and unchallenged (0-control). Each week the ceca of 10 contact chicks and one seeder chick were examined quantitatively for Campylobacter The treatment prevented or significantly reduced the colonization of the challenge organism in the ceca during the two first weeks; the percentage of colonized birds being 0% after the first week and 30% after the second week in the Broilact treated groups but was 100% in the control groups the entire 5-week rearing period. During the third rearing week the proportion of Campylobacter positive birds started to increase in the treated pens, being 80% after the third week and 95 and 90% after the fourth and fifth rearing weeks, respectively. Similarly the average count of Campylobacter in the cecal contents of the Broilact treated chicks started to increase, the difference between the treated and control chicks being 1.4 logs at the end of the rearing period. Although the protective effect was temporary and occurred only during the first two weeks of the rearing period, the results of this study support the earlier observations that CE flora designed to protect chicks from Salmonella may also reduce Campylobacter colonization of broiler chickens.

Identification of risk factors for Campylobacter contamination levels on broiler carcasses during the slaughter process

Campylobacter carcass contamination was quantified across the slaughter line during processing of Campylobacter positive batches. These quantitative data were combined together with information describing slaughterhouse and batch related characteristics in order to identify risk factors for Campylobacter contamination levels on broiler carcasses. The results revealed that Campylobacter counts are influenced by the contamination of incoming birds (both the initial external carcass contamination and the colonization level of caeca) and the duration of transport and holding time that can be linked with feed withdrawal period. In addition, technical aspects of the slaughter process such as a dump based unloading system, electrical stunning, lower scalding temperature, incorrect setting of plucking, vent cutter and evisceration machines were identified as risk factors associated with increased Campylobacter counts on processed carcasses. As such the study indicates possible improvements of the slaughter process that can result in better control of Campylobacter numbers under routine processing of Campylobacter positive batches without use of chemical or physical decontamination. Moreover, all investigated factors were existing variations of the routine processing practises and therefore proposed interventions are practically and economically achievable.

Rapid and Sensitive Detection of Shigella spp. and Salmonella spp. by Multiple Endonuclease Restriction Real-Time Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Technique

Shigella and Salmonella are frequently isolated from various food samples and can cause human gastroenteritis. Here, a novel multiple endonuclease restriction real-time loop-mediated isothermal amplification technology (MERT-LAMP) were successfully established and validated for simultaneous detection of Shigella strains and Salmonella strains in only a single reaction. Two sets of MERT-LAMP primers for 2 kinds of pathogens were designed from ipaH gene of Shigella spp. and invA gene of Salmonella spp., respectively. Under the constant condition at 63°C, the positive results were yielded in as short as 12 min with the genomic DNA extracted from the 19 Shigella strains and 14 Salmonella strains, and the target pathogens present in a sample could be simultaneously identified based on distinct fluorescence curves in real-time format. Accordingly, the multiplex detection assay significantly reduced effort, materials and reagents used, and amplification and differentiation were conducted at the same time, obviating the use of postdetection procedures. The analytical sensitivity of MERT-LAMP was found to be 62.5 and 125 fg DNA/reaction with genomic templates of Shigella strains and Salmonella strains, which was consist with normal LAMP assay, and at least 10- and 100-fold more sensitive than that of qPCR and conventional PCR approaches. The limit of detection of MERT-LAMP for Shigella strains and Salmonella strains detection in artificially contaminated milk samples was 5.8 and 6.4 CFU per vessel. In conclusion, the MERT-LAMP methodology described here demonstrated a potential and valuable means for simultaneous screening of Shigella and Salmonella in a wide variety of samples.

Eight challenges in modelling infectious livestock diseases

The transmission of infectious diseases of livestock does not differ in principle from disease transmission in any other animals, apart from that the aim of control is ultimately economic, with the influence of social, political and welfare constraints often poorly defined. Modelling of livestock diseases suffers simultaneously from a wealth and a lack of data. On the one hand, the ability to conduct transmission experiments, detailed within-host studies and track individual animals between geocoded locations make livestock diseases a particularly rich potential source of realistic data for illuminating biological mechanisms of transmission and conducting explicit analyses of contact networks. On the other hand, scarcity of funding, as compared to human diseases, often results in incomplete and partial data for many livestock diseases and regions of the world. In this overview of challenges in livestock disease modelling, we highlight eight areas unique to livestock that, if addressed, would mark major progress in the area.