Spray-drying encapsulation of mangiferin using natural polymers

Mangiferin: A comprehensive review on its extraction, purification and uses in food systems

With the target of fabricating healthier products, food manufacturing companies look for natural-based nutraceuticals that can potentially improve the physicochemical properties of food systems while being nutritive to the consumer and providing additional health benefits (biological activities). In this regard, Mangiferin joins all these requirements as a potential nutraceutical, which is typically contained in Mangifera indica products and its by-products. Unfortunately, knowing the complex chemical composition of Mango and its by-products, the extraction and purification of Mangiferin remains a challenge. Therefore, this comprehensive review revises the main strategies proposed by scientists for the extraction and purification of Mangiferin. Importantly, this review identifies that there is no report reviewing and criticizing the literature in this field so far. Our attention has been targeted on the timely findings on the primary extraction techniques and the relevant insights into isolation and purification. Our discussion has emphasized the advantages and limitations of the proposed strategies, including solvents, extracting conditions and key interactions with the target xanthone. Additionally, we report the current research gaps in the field after analyzing the literature, as well as some examples of functional food products containing Mangiferin.

Potential of electro-sprayed purified mangiferin nanoparticles for anti-aging cosmetic applications

The fabrication of mangiferin nanoparticles using an electrospraying technique is a new and promising method for developing nanoparticles with higher efficiency and safety. This study aimed to fabricate mangiferin nanoparticles (MNPs) using cellulose acetate (CA) as a polymer at various parameters using electrospraying. Commercial mangiferin (CM) was purified from 88.46 to 95.71% by a recrystallization method to improve its purity and biological activities and remove any residue. The properties of recrystallized mangiferin (RM) were characterized using DSC, FTIR, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and HPLC. Then its biological activity and proteomics were determined. Proteomics analysis of RM showed that up-regulated proteins were involved in more biological processes than CM. MNPs were fabricated by varying the electrospraying parameters including voltage, the distance between the needle-tip-collector and flow rate. Skin permeation, release and irritation were also evaluated. The results revealed that the average particle size of the MNPs ranged between 295.47 ± 5.58 and 448.87 ± 3.00 nm, and had a smooth spherical morphology in SEM images. The MNPs also showed good potential in antioxidant and anti-aging properties. The encapsulation efficiency of MNPs was determined to be 85.31%. From skin permeation studies of CM, RM, and MNPs, the mangiferin content was found in the stratum corneum and dermis skin layers. Moreover, the MNPs solution had 23.68 ± 0.27% and 11.98 ± 0.13% of mangiferin in the stratum corneum and viable epidermis and dermis, respectively. Additionally, the irritation test by HET-CAM was mild and safe. Therefore, MNPs produced by electrospraying are a promising delivery system for cosmetic/cosmeceutical applications.

Nanotechnology-Based Drug Delivery Approaches of Mangiferin: Promises, Reality and Challenges in Cancer Chemotherapy

Mangiferin (MGF), a xanthone derived from Mangifera indica L., initially employed as a nutraceutical, is now being explored extensively for its anticancer potential. Scientists across the globe have explored this bioactive for managing a variety of cancers using validated in vitro and in vivo models. The in vitro anticancer potential of this biomolecule on well-established breast cancer cell lines such as MDA-MB-23, BEAS-2B cells and MCF-7 is closer to many approved synthetic anticancer agents. However, the solubility and bioavailability of this xanthone are the main challenges, and its oral bioavailability is reported to be less than 2%, and its aqueous solubility is also 0.111 mg/mL. Nano-drug delivery systems have attempted to deliver the drugs at the desired site at a desired rate in desired amounts. Many researchers have explored various nanotechnology-based approaches to provide effective and safe delivery of mangiferin for cancer therapy. Nanoparticles were used as carriers to encapsulate mangiferin, protecting it from degradation and facilitating its delivery to cancer cells. They have attempted to enhance the bioavailability, safety and efficacy of this very bioactive using drug delivery approaches. The present review focuses on the origin and structure elucidation of mangiferin and its derivatives and the benefits of this bioactive. The review also offers insight into the delivery-related challenges of mangiferin and its applications in nanosized forms against cancer. The use of a relatively new deep-learning approach to solve the pharmacokinetic issues of this bioactive has also been discussed. The review also critically analyzes the future hope for mangiferin as a therapeutic agent for cancer management.

Argon Plasma Jet-Treated Poly (Vinyl Alcohol)/Chitosan and PEG 400 Plus Mangifera indica Leaf Extract for Electrospun Nanofiber Membranes: In Vitro Study

The wound-healing process can be disrupted at any stage due to various internal and external factors. The inflammatory stage of the process plays a vital role in determining the outcome of the wound. Prolonged inflammation due to bacterial infection can lead to tissue damage, slow healing, and complications. Wound dressings made using materials such as poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA), chitosan (CS), and poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) with Mangifera extract (ME) added can help reduce infection and inflammation, creating a conducive environment for faster healing. However, creating the electrospun membrane is challenging due to balancing various forces such as rheological behavior, conductivity, and surface tension. To improve the electrospinnability of the polymer solution, an atmospheric pressure plasma jet can induce chemistry in the solution and increase the polarity of the solvent. Thus, this research aims to investigate the effect of plasma treatment on PVA, CS, and PEG polymer solutions and fabricate ME wound dressing via electrospinning. The results indicated that increasing plasma treatment time increased the viscosity of the polymer solution, from 269 mPa∙to 331 mPa∙s after 60 min, and led to an increase in conductivity from 298 mS/cm to 330 mS/cm and an increase in nanofiber diameter from 90 ± 40 nm to 109 ± 49 nm. Incorporating 1% mangiferin extract into an electrospun nanofiber membrane has been found to increase the inhibition rates of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus by 29.2% and 61.2%, respectively. Additionally, the fiber diameter decreases when compared with the electrospun nanofiber membrane without ME. Our findings demonstrate that electrospun nanofiber membrane with ME has anti-infective properties and can promote faster wound healing.

Targeting mangiferin loaded N-succinyl chitosan-alginate grafted nanoparticles against atherosclerosis - A case study against diabetes mediated hyperlipidemia in rat

Mangiferin (MGF), from Mangifera indica is well reported for its hypoglycemic activity and hypolipidemic activity. However, MGF suffers therapeutic limitation due to poor solubility causing disparaging bioavailability. Herein to address this problem, we have incorporated MGF in alginate grafted N-succinylated chitosan (NSC) nanomatrix. Characterization by molecular docking, FT-IR and 2D-NMR (COSY) has revealed that MGF could reinforce interaction with NSC. The OH and CH₂OH groups of MGF may set interactions with pyranosic OH, CH₂OH, NH₂ (or NH-succinyl and COOH-succinyl) of NSC. The NSC-MGF nanoconjugate revealed a spherical particle geometry of 100 ∼ 200 nm size. The encapsulated MGF showed 100% release in vitro. In vivo, NSC-MGF nanoconjugate revealed blood glucose lowering from 300 mg/dL to ∼ 90 mg/dL as well as ∼ 37% lowering of total plasma cholesterol. This is well comparative to the earlier reports which acknowledged only 1 ∼ 36% lowering of plasma cholesterol with MGF. Furthermore, NSC-MGF lowered serum trigyceride to ∼ 61%, while in earlier studies, only 10 ∼ 40% serum triglycerides reduction was found with solitary MGF.

Mangiferin: a review of dietary sources, absorption, metabolism, bioavailability, and safety

Mangiferin is a potential candidate for use in nutraceutical and functional food applications due to its numerous bioactivities. However, the low bioavailability of mangiferin is a major limitation for establishing efficacy for use. This review describes current information on known food sources and factors that influence mangiferin contents, absorption, and metabolism features, and recent progress that has come from research efforts to increase the bioavailability of mangiferin. We also list patents that targeted to enhance mangiferin bioavailability. Mangifera indica L. is the major dietary source for mangiferin, a xanthone that varies widely in different parts of the plant and is influenced by many factors that involve plant propagation and post-harvest processing. Mangiferin absorption occurs mostly in the small intestine by passive diffusion with varying absorption capacities in different segments of the gastrointestinal tract. Recent research has led to the development of novel technologies to encapsulate mangiferin in nano/microparticle carrier systems as well as generate mangiferin derivatives to improve solubility and bioavailability. Preclinical studies reported that mangiferin < 2000 mg/kg is generally nontoxic. The safety and the increase in bioavailability are key limiting factors for developing successful applications for mangiferin as a nutritional dietary supplement or nutraceutical.

Development and in vitro evaluation of microparticles of fluoxetine in galactomannan against biofilms of S. aureus methicilin resistant

The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria is a global problem, by reducing the effectiveness of traditional antibiotics and decreasing the therapeutic arsenal to treat bacterial infections. This has led to an increase in researches about how to overcome this resistance to antibiotics. One strategy is the repositioning (or repurposing) of existing drugs not previously used to combat microorganisms, rather than the development of new drugs. Fluoxetine (FLX) is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRIs) and is considered one of the first highly selective antidepressants of the monoamine neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT). The objective of this study is to prepare and physically characterize fluoxetine microparticles with galactomannan and evaluate their efficacy against strains of Staphylococcus aureus sensitive and resistant to methicillin. The microparticles were analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), infrared analysis (IR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). In addition, the percentage of encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and drug release kinetics were determined in vitro, along with the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and evaluation of the action against biofilms. Physical tests were conducted to characterize galactomannan (GAL), FLX, oxacillin (OXA) and the galactomannan/fluoxetine microparticles (GFM). The EE% value was 98 % and, in regard the release, tests with the microparticles released about 60 % of the drug in 200 min. The isolated MIC results for FLX (255 μg/mL) and OXA MIC (1.97-15.62 μg/mL) showed that the strains were resistant. Furthermore, in the biofilms, microparticles showed statically significant improvement for all concentrations used. The study revealed that fluoxetine encapsulated in microparticles has the potential to act as an effective antimicrobial agent.

Mangiferin as New Potential Anti-Cancer Agent and Mangiferin-Integrated Polymer Systems-A Novel Research Direction

For a long time, the pharmaceutical industry focused on natural biologically active molecules due to their unique properties, availability and significantly less side-effects. Mangiferin is a naturally occurring C-glucosylxantone that has substantial potential for the treatment of various diseases thanks to its numerous biological activities. Many research studies have proven that mangiferin possesses antioxidant, anti-infection, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, cardiovascular, neuroprotective properties and it also increases immunity. It is especially important that it has no toxicity. However, mangiferin is not being currently applied to clinical use because its oral bioavailability as well as its absorption in the body are too low. To improve the solubility, enhance the biological action and bioavailability, mangiferin integrated polymer systems have been developed. In this paper, we review molecular mechanisms of anti-cancer action as well as a number of designed polymer-mangiferin systems. Taking together, mangiferin is a very promising anti-cancer molecule with excellent properties and the absence of toxicity.

Cashew apple pectin as a carrier matrix for mangiferin: Physicochemical characterization, in vitro release and biological evaluation in human neutrophils

In this work, cashew apple pectin (CP) of the species Anacardium occidentale L. was used as an encapsulation matrix for hydrophobic drugs. The model drug chosen was mangiferin (Mf), a glycosylated C-xanthone which has antioxidant properties but low solubility in aqueous medium. CP (1-100 μg mL^-1) was not toxic to human neutrophils and also did not significantly interfere with the pro-inflammatory mechanism of these cells in the concentration range of 12.5 and 100 μg mL^-1. The results are promising because they show that pectin encapsulated mangiferin after spray drying presented an efficiency of 82.02%. The results obtained in the dissolution test, simulating the release of mangiferin in the gastrointestinal tract (pH 1.2, 4.6 and 6.8) and using Franz diffusion cells (pH 7.4), showed that cashew pectin may be a promising vehicle in prolonged drug delivery systems for both oral and dermal applications.

Phospholipid complex-loaded self-assembled phytosomal soft nanoparticles: evidence of enhanced solubility, dissolution rate, ex vivo permeability, oral bioavailability, and antioxidant potential of mangiferin

In this study, self-assembled phytosomal soft nanoparticles encapsulated with phospholipid complex (MPLC SNPs) using a combination of solvent evaporation and nanoprecipitation method were developed to enhance the biopharmaceutical and antioxidant potential of MGN. The mangiferin-Phospholipon® 90H complex (MPLC) was produced by the solvent evaporation method and optimized using central composite design (CCD). The optimized MPLC was converted into MPLC SNPs using the nanoprecipitation method. The physicochemical and functional characterization of MPLC and MPLC SNPs was carried out by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), powder X-ray diffractometer (PXRD), proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR), solubility, in vitro dissolution, oral bioavailability, and in vivo antioxidant studies. A CCD formed stable MPLC with the optimal values of 1:1.76, 50.55 °C, and 2.02 h, respectively. Characterization studies supported the formation of a complex. MPLC and MPLC SNPs both enhanced the aqueous solubility (~ 32-fold and ~ 39-fold), dissolution rate around ~ 98% via biphasic release pattern, and permeation rate of ~ 97%, respectively, compared with MGN and MGN SNPs. Liver function tests and in vivo antioxidant studies exhibited that MPLC SNPs significantly preserved the CCl₄-intoxicated liver marker and antioxidant marker enzymes, compared with MGN SNPs. The oral bioavailability of MPLC SNPs was increased appreciably up to ~ 10-fold by increasing the main pharmacokinetic parameters such as C_max, T_max, and AUC. Thus, MPLC SNPs could be engaged as a nanovesicle delivery system for improving the biopharmaceutical and antioxidant potential of MGN. Graphical abstract.

Innovative strategies to treat skin wounds with mangiferin: fabrication of transfersomes modified with glycols and mucin

Aim: The moisturizing properties of glycerol, the penetration enhancing capability of propylene glycol and the bioadhesive properties of mucin were combined to improve the carrier capabilities of transfersomes and the efficacy of mangiferin in the treatment of skin lesions. Materials & methods: Mangiferin was incorporated in transfersomes and glycoltransfersomes, which were also modified with mucin. The physico-chemical features were assessed, along with the efficacy against oxidative stress and skin wounds in vitro and in vivo. Results: Glycoltransfersomes promoted the deposition of mangiferin in epidermis and dermis, protected fibroblasts from oxidative stress and stimulated their proliferation. The wound healing and anti-inflammatory efficacy of glycoltransfersomes were confirmed in vivo. Conclusion: Results confirmed the potential of glycoltransfersomes in preventing/treating of skin lesions.

Mangiferin-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles: Optical Characterization, Effect of Anti-topoisomerase I, and Cytotoxicity

Mangiferin is an important xanthone compound presenting various biological activities. The objective of this study was to develop, characterize physicochemical properties, and evaluate the anti-topoisomerase activity of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles containing mangiferin. The nanoparticles were developed by the emulsion solvent evaporation method and the optimal formulation was obtained with a response surface methodology (RSM); this formulation showed a mean size of 176.7 ± 1.021 nm with a 0.153 polydispersibility index (PDI) value, and mangiferin encapsulation efficiency was about 55%. The optimal conditions (6000 rpm, 10 min, and 300 μg of mangiferin) obtained 77% and the highest entrapment efficiency (97%). The in vitro release profile demonstrated a gradual release of mangiferin from 15 to 180 min in acidic conditions (pH 1.5). The fingerprint showed a modification in the maximum absorption wavelength of both the polymer and the mangiferin. Results of anti-toposiomerase assay showed that the optimal formulation (MG4, 25 µg/mL) had antiproliferative activity. High concentrations (2500 µg/mL) of MG4 showed non-in vitro cytotoxic effect on BEAS 2B and HEPG2. Finally, this study showed an encapsulation process with in vitro gastric digestion resistance (1.5 h) and without interfering with the metabolism of healthy cells and their biological activity.

Enzymatic synthesis and biological characterization of a novel mangiferin glucoside

Mangiferin, a major constituent of Mangifera indica L., has attracted substantial attention due to its anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-microbial activities. However, its poor solubility in water limits its use in food and pharmaceutical industries. In this study, novel mangiferin-(1→6)-α-d-glucopyranoside (Mg-G1) was enzymatically synthesized from mangiferin and sucrose using glucansucrase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides B-512F/KM, and optimized using response surface methodology. The water solubility of Mg-G1 was found to be 824.7 mM, which is more than 2300-fold higher than that of mangiferin. Mg-G1 also showed DPPH radical scavenging activity and superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like scavenging activity, which were 4.77- and 3.71-fold higher than that of mangiferin, respectively. Mg-G1 displayed inhibitory activity against human intestinal maltase and COX-2. Thus, the novel glucosylated mangiferin may be used as an ingredient in functional food and pharmaceutical application.

Improving the biopharmaceutical attributes of mangiferin using vitamin E-TPGS co-loaded self-assembled phosholipidic nano-mixed micellar systems

The current research work encompasses the development, characterization, and evaluation of self-assembled phospholipidic nano-mixed miceller system (SPNMS) of a poorly soluble BCS Class IV xanthone bioactive, mangiferin (Mgf) functionalized with co-delivery of vitamin E TPGS. Systematic optimization using I-optimal design yielded self-assembled phospholipidic nano-micelles with a particle size of < 60 nm and > 80% of drug release in 15 min. The cytotoxicity and cellular uptake studies performed using MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines demonstrated greater kill and faster cellular uptake. The ex vivo intestinal permeability revealed higher lymphatic uptake, while in situ perfusion and in vivo pharmacokinetic studies indicated nearly 6.6- and 3.0-folds augmentation in permeability and bioavailability of Mgf. In a nutshell, vitamin E functionalized SPNMS of Mgf improved the biopharmaceutical performance of Mgf in rats for enhanced anticancer potency.

Pectin and Pectin-Based Composite Materials: Beyond Food Texture

Pectins are plant cell wall natural heteropolysaccharides composed mainly of α-1-4 d-galacturonic acid units, which may or may not be methyl esterified, possesses neutral sugars branching that harbor functional moieties. Physicochemical features as pH, temperature, ions concentration, and cosolute presence, affect directly the extraction yield and gelling capacity of pectins. The chemical and structural features of this polysaccharide enables its interaction with a wide range of molecules, a property that scientists profit from to form new composite matrices for target/controlled delivery of therapeutic molecules, genes or cells. Considered a prebiotic dietary fiber, pectins meetmany regulations easily, regarding health applications within the pharmaceutical industry as a raw material and as an agent for the prevention of cancer. Thus, this review lists many emergent pectin-based composite materials which will probably palliate the impact of obesity, diabetes and heart disease, aid to forestall actual epidemics, expand the ken of food additives and food products design.

Exploring and validating physicochemical properties of mangiferin through GastroPlus® software

AIM

Mangiferin (Mgf), a promising therapeutic polyphenol, exhibits poor oral bioavailability. Hence, apt delivery systems are required to facilitate its gastrointestinal absorption. The requisite details on its physicochemical properties have not yet been well documented in literature. Accordingly, in order to have explicit insight into its physicochemical characteristics, the present work was undertaken using GastroPlus™ software.

RESULTS

Aqueous solubility (0.38 mg/ml), log P (-0.65), P_eff (0.16 × 10^-4 cm/s) and ability to act as P-gp substrate were defined. Potency to act as a P-gp substrate was verified through Caco-2 cells, while P_eff was estimated through single pass intestinal perfusion studies. Characterization of Mgf through transmission electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, infrared spectroscopy and powder x-ray diffraction has also been reported.

CONCLUSION

The values of physicochemical properties for Mgf reported in the current manuscript would certainly enable the researchers to develop newer delivery systems for Mgf.

Mangiferin and Cancer: Mechanisms of Action

Mangiferin, a bioactive compound derived primarily from Anacardiaceae and Gentianaceae families and found in mangoes and honeybush tea, has been extensively studied for its therapeutic properties. Mangiferin has shown promising chemotherapeutic and chemopreventative potential. This review focuses on the effect of mangiferin on: (1) inflammation, with respect to NFκB, PPARү and the immune system; (2) cell cycle, the MAPK pathway G₂/M checkpoint; (3) proliferation and metastasis, and implications on β-catenin, MMPs, EMT, angiogenesis and tumour volume; (4) apoptosis, with a focus on Bax/Bcl ratios, intrinsic/extrinsic apoptotic pathways and telomerase activity; (5) oxidative stress, through Nrf2/ARE signalling, ROS elimination and catalase activity; and (6) efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents, such as oxaliplatin, etoposide and doxorubicin. In addition, the need to enhance the bioavailability and delivery of mangiferin are briefly addressed, as well as the potential for toxicity.

Microencapsulation of bioactives for food applications

The potential of microencapsulation to protect bioactive compounds ensuring bioavailability maintenance is proved but requires further studies on its applicability and incentives by regulatory agencies.

Mangiferin loaded magnetic PCEC microspheres: preparation, characterization and antitumor activity studies in vitro

Mangiferin is a promising effective chemopreventive agent against various tumors. However, its clinical use is limited by poor water solubility and low bioavailability. In this article, mangiferin loaded magnetic PCEC microspheres (MG-MS) were designed, characterized and the antitumor activity of MG-MS was evaluated in vitro. The magnetic nanoparticles (MNP) were synthesized via the high-temperature reaction of iron acetylacetonate in phenyl ether in the presence of oleic acid and oleylamine. Poly (ε-caprolactone)-poly (ethyleneglycol)-poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL-PEG-PCL, PCEC) copolymers were formed by ring-opening copolymerization of ε-CL initiated by PEG-diol using Sn(Oct)₂ as a catalyst and MG-MS were prepared by solvent diffusion method. MNP, PCEC copolymer, and MG-MS were characterized by GPC, TEM, XRD, FT-IR, ¹H-NMP and Malvern Laser Particle Sizer. Meanwhile, the antiproliferative activity in vitro and in vitro release behavior of this microspheres were studied in detail. The results indicate that the obtained magnetic microspheres might have great potential as an effective carrier for mangiferin used in cancer chemotherapy.

In situ grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering investigation of polystyrene nanoparticle spray deposition onto silicon

We investigated the spray deposition and subsequent self-assembly during drying of a polystyrene nanoparticle dispersion with in situ grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering at high time resolution. During the fast deposition of the dispersion and the subsequent evaporation of the solvent, different transient stages of nanoparticle assembly can be identified. In the first stage, the solvent starts to evaporate without ordering of the nanoparticles. During the second stage, large-scale structures imposed by the breakup of the liquid film are observable. In this stage, the solvent evaporates further and nanoparticle ordering starts. In the late third drying stage, the nanoparticles self-assemble into the final layer structure.