Effect of sophorolipid on the curcumin-loaded ternary composite nanoparticles self-assembled from zein and chondroitin sulfate

Effects of OSA-starch-fatty acid interactions on the structural, digestibility and release characteristics of high amylose corn starch

This study investigated the effects of octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)-starch-fatty acid (FA) interactions on the structural, digestibility and release characteristics of high amylose corn starch (HAS). FTIR and XRD analysis showed that the hydrophobic interaction between HAS and FA promoted the covalent binding between OSA and HAS. With the increasing of the FA chain length, the complex index, degree of substitution, R1047/1022 and relative crystallinity of OSA-HAS-FA increased first and then decreased, whereas the first-order rate coefficient and percentage of digested in infinite time showed an opposite trend. Structural changes and the molecular interactions of OSA-HAS-FA with 12‑carbon FA resulted in highest resistant starch content (45.43%) and encapsulation efficiency of curcumin (Cur) (47.98%). In vitro release test revealed that Cur could be gradually released from OSA-HAS-FA in simulated gastric, intestinal and colonic fluids. Results provided novel insights into HAS-FA complex grafted with OSA as carrier for colon-specific of functional materials.

Fabrication and characterization of curcumin-loaded composite nanoparticles based on high-hydrostatic-pressure-treated zein and pectin: Interaction mechanism, stability, and bioaccessibility

We successfully designed curcumin (Cur)-loaded composite nanoparticles consisting of high-hydrostatic-pressure-treated (HHP-treated) zein and pectin with a pressure of 150 MPa (zein-150 MPa-P-Cur), showing nano-spherical structure with high zeta-potential (-36.72 ± 1.14 mV) and encapsulation efficiency (95.64 ± 1.23 %). We investigated the interaction mechanism of the components in zein-150 MPa-P-Cur using fluorescence spectroscopy, molecular dynamics simulation, Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy techniques. Compared with zein-P-Cur, the binding sites and binding energy (-53.68 kcal/mol vs. - 44.22 kcal/mol) of HHP-treated zein and Cur were increased. Meanwhile, the interaction force among HHP-treated zein, pectin, and Cur was significantly enhanced, which formed a tighter and more stable particle structure to further improve package performance. Additionally, Cur showed the best chemical stability in zein-150 MPa-P-Cur. And the bioavailability of Cur was increased to 65.53 ± 1.70 %. Collectively, composite nanoparticles based on HHP-treated zein and pectin could be used as a promising Cur delivery system.

Stabilization of zein nanoparticles with tween-80 and fucoidan for encapsulation of eugenol via a nozzle simulation chip

Eugenol (EU), a natural bioactive compound found in various plants, offers numerous health benefits, but its application in the food and pharmaceutical industry is limited by its high volatility, instability, and low water solubility. Therefore, this study aimed to utilize the surface coating technique to develop zein-tween-80-fucoidan (Z-T-FD) composite nanoparticles for encapsulating eugenol using a nozzle simulation chip. The physicochemical characteristics of the composite nanoparticles were examined by varying the weight ratios of Z, T, and FD. Results showed that the Z-T-FD weight ratio of 5:1:15 exhibited excellent colloidal stability under a range of conditions, including pH (2-8), salt concentrations (10-500 mmol/L), heating (80 °C), and storage (30 days). Encapsulation of EU into Z-T-FD nanoparticles (0.5:5:1:15) resulted in an encapsulation efficiency of 49.29 ± 1.00%, loading capacity of 0.46 ± 0.05%, particle size of 205.01 ± 3.25 nm, PDI of 0.179 ± 0.006, and zeta-potential of 37.12 ± 1.87 mV. Spherical structures were formed through hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bonding, as confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and molecular docking. Furthermore, the EU-Z-T-FD (0.5:5:1:15) nanoparticles displayed higher in vitro antioxidant properties (with DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging properties at 75.28 ± 0.16% and 39.13 ± 1.22%, respectively), in vitro bioaccessibility (64.78 ± 1.37%), and retention rates under thermal and storage conditions for EU compared to other formulations. These findings demonstrate that the Z-T-FD nanoparticle system can effectively encapsulate, protect, and deliver eugenol, making it a promising option for applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Construction of chitosan/alginate aerogels with three-dimensional hierarchical pore network structure via hydrogen bonding dissolution and covalent crosslinking synergistic strategy for thermal management systems

To replace traditional petrochemical-based thermal insulation materials, in this work, the chitosan (CHI)/alginate (ALG) (CA) aerogels with three-dimensional hierarchical pore network structure were constructed by compositing CHI and ALG using a synergistic strategy of hydrogen bonding dissolution and covalent crosslinking. The structure and properties were further regulated by crosslinking the CA aerogels with epichlorohydrin (ECH). The CA aerogels exhibited various forms of covalent crosslinking, hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions, with hydrogen bonding content reaching 79.12 %. The CA aerogels showed an excellent three-dimensional hierarchical pore network structure, with an average pore size minimum of 15.92 nm. The structure regulation of CA aerogels obtained excellent compressive properties, with an increase of stress and strain by 137.61 % and 45.05 %, which can support a heavy object 5000 times its weight. Additionally, CA aerogels demonstrate excellent thermal insulation properties and low thermal conductivity, comparable to commercially available insulation materials. More importantly, CA aerogels have good cyclic insulation stability and thermal properties, and they have a flame retardancy rating of V-0, which shows the stability of insulation properties and excellent safety. CA aerogels provide new ideas for the development of biomass thermal insulation materials and are expected to be candidates for thermal management applications.

A Bionic Thermosensitive Sustainable Delivery System for Reversing the Progression of Osteoarthritis by Remodeling the Joint Homeostasis

Although the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA) is unclear, inflammatory cytokines are related to its occurrence. However, few studies focused on the therapeutic strategies of regulating joint homeostasis by simultaneously remodeling the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory microenvironments. Fibroblast growth factor 18 (FGF18) is the only disease-modifying OA drug (DMOAD) with a potent ability and high efficiency in maintaining the phenotype of chondrocytes within cell culture models. However, its potential role in the immune microenvironment remains unknown. Besides, information on an optimal carrier, whose interface and chondral-biomimetic microenvironment mimic the native articular tissue, is still lacking, which substantially limits the clinical efficacy of FGF18. Herein, to simulate the cartilage matrix, chondroitin sulfate (ChS)-based nanoparticles (NPs) are integrated into poly(D, L-lactide)-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(D, L-lactide) (PLEL) hydrogels to develop a bionic thermosensitive sustainable delivery system. Electrostatically self-assembled ChS and ε-poly-l-lysine (EPL) NPs are prepared for the bioencapsulation of FGF18. This bionic delivery system suppressed the inflammatory response in interleukin-1β (IL-1β)-mediated chondrocytes, promoted macrophage M2 polarization, and inhibited M1 polarization, thereby ameliorating cartilage degeneration and synovitis in OA. Thus, the ChS-based hydrogel system offers a potential strategy to regulate the chondrocyte-macrophage crosstalk, thus re-establishing the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory microenvironment for OA therapy.

Effect of Heat Treatment Combined with TG Enzyme Cross-Linking on the Zein-Pea Protein Complex: Physicochemical and Gel Properties

Plant proteins have the advantages of low cost and high yield, but they are still not comparable to animal proteins in processing due to factors such as gelation and solubility. How to enhance the processing performance of plant proteins by simple and green modification means has become a hot research topic nowadays. Based on the above problems, we studied the effect of gel induction on its properties. In this study, a pea protein-zein complex was prepared by the pH cycle method, and the effects of different induced gel methods on the gel properties of the complex protein were studied. The conclusions are as follows: All three gel induction methods can make the complex protein form a gel system, among which the gel strength of heat treatment and the TG enzyme-inducted group is the highest (372.84 g). Through the observation of the gel microstructure, the gel double network structure disappears and the structure becomes denser, which leads to a stronger water-binding state of the gel sample in the collaborative treatment group. In the simulated digestion experiment, heat treatment and enzyme-induced samples showed the best slow-release effect. This study provides a new method for the preparation of multi-vegetable protein gels and lays a theoretical foundation for their application in food processing.

pH-driven preparation of pea protein isolate-curcumin nanoparticles effectively enhances antitumor activity

Soluble pea protein isolate-curcumin nanoparticles were successfully prepared at a novel pH combination, with encapsulation efficiency and drug loading amount of 95.69 ± 1.63 % and 32.73 ± 0.56 μg/mg, respectively, resulting in >4000-fold increase in the water solubility of curcumin. The encapsulation propensity and interaction mechanism of pea protein isolates with curcumin and colchicine were comparatively evaluated by structural characterization, molecular dynamics simulations and molecular docking. The results showed that the nanoparticles formed by curcumin and colchicine with pea protein isolates were mainly driven by hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, and the binding process did not alter the secondary structure of pea protein. In contrast, pea protein isolate-curcumin nanoparticles exhibited smaller particle size, lower RMSD value, lower binding Gibbs free energy and greater structural stability. Therefore, pea protein isolate is a suitable encapsulation material for hydrophobic compounds. Furthermore, the pea protein isolate-curcumin nanoparticles showed remarkably enhanced antitumor activity, as evidenced by a significant reduction in IC50, and the anti-tumor mechanism of it involved the ROS-induced mitochondria-mediated caspase cascade apoptosis pathway. These findings provide insights into the development of pea protein-based delivery systems and the possibility of a broader application of curcumin in antitumor activity.

Precursor template-induced egg white-derived peptides self-assembly for the enhancement of curcumin: Structure, environmental stability, and bioavailability

Natural multicomponent peptides with abundant bioactivity, varied sizes, and tunable interaction potential are available for rational designing novel self-assembled delivery carriers. Herein, we exploited zein-hyaluronic acid nanoparticles (Z-HA NPs) with a predetermined ordered structure as precursor templates to induce the self-assembly of egg white-derived peptides (EWDP) to generate stable spherical architectures for the enhancement of curcumin (Cur). The resulting Z-EWDP-HA NPs encapsulated hydrophobic Cur through robust hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions with high encapsulation efficiency (97.38% at pH 7.0). The NPs presented superior Cur aqueous solubility, redispersibility, and photothermal stability. More importantly, the self-assembled EWDP could exert synergistic antioxidant activity with Cur and enhance the bioaccessibility of Cur. Meanwhile, the favorable biocompatibility and membrane affinity of EWDP further prolonged residence and time-controlled release feature of Cur in the small intestine. Precursor template-induced multicomponent peptides' self-assembly provides an efficient and controllable strategy for co-enhanced bioactivity and self-assembly capacity of peptides, which could dramatically broaden the functionalization of multicomponent peptides hydrolyzed from natural food proteins.

The potential of curcumin-based co-delivery systems for applications in the food industry: Food preservation, freshness monitoring, and functional food

Currently, curcumin-based co-delivery systems are receiving widespread attention. However, a systematic summary of the possibility of curcumin-based co-delivery systems used for the food industry from multiple directions based on the functional characteristics of curcumin is lacking. This review details the different forms of curcumin-based co-delivery systems including the single system of nanoparticle, liposome, double emulsion, and multiple systems composed of different hydrocolloids. The structural composition, stability, encapsulation efficiency, and protective effects of these forms are discussed comprehensively. The functional characteristics of curcumin-based co-delivery systems are summarized, involving biological activity (antimicrobial and antioxidant), pH-responsive discoloration, and bioaccessibility/bioavailability. Correspondingly, potential applications for food preservation, freshness detection, and functional foods are introduced. In the future, more novel co-delivery systems for active ingredients and food matrices should be developed. Besides, the synergistic mechanisms between active ingredients, delivery carrier/active ingredient, and external physical condition/active ingredient should be explored. In conclusion, curcumin-based co-delivery systems have the potential to be widely used in the food industry.

Extracellular matrix component-derived nanoparticles for drug delivery and tissue engineering

The extracellular matrix (ECM) consists of a complex combination of proteins, proteoglycans, and other biomolecules. ECM-based materials have been demonstrated to have high biocompatibility and bioactivity, which may be harnessed for drug delivery and tissue engineering applications. Herein, nanoparticles incorporating ECM-based materials and their applications in drug delivery and tissue engineering are reviewed. Proteins such as gelatin, collagen, and fibrin as well as glycosaminoglycans including hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, and heparin have been employed for cancer therapeutic delivery, gene delivery, and wound healing and regenerative medicine. Strategies for modifying and functionalizing these materials with synthetic and natural polymers or to enable stimuli-responsive degradation and drug release have increased the efficacy of these materials and nano-systems. The incorporation and modification of ECM-based materials may be used to drive drug targeting and increase tissue-specific cell differentiation more effectively.

Formation, stability and in vitro digestion of curcumin loaded whey protein/ hyaluronic acid nanoparticles: Ethanol desolvation vs. pH-shifting method

Curcumin (CUR) was encapsulated in whey protein isolate/hyaluronic acid (WPI/HA) electrostatic nanoparticles at pH 5.4, 4.4, 3.4 and 2.4 using ethanol desolvation (DNP) or pH-shifting (PSNP) method. The prepared nanoparticles were characterized and compared for physiochemical properties, structure, stability, and in vitro digestion. PSNPs had smaller particle size, more uniform distribution, and higher encapsulation efficiency than DNPs. Main driving forces involved for fabricating the nanoparticles were electrostatic forces, hydrophobic forces, and hydrogen bonds. PSNP exhibited better resistance towards salt, thermal treatment, and long-term storage while DNPs showed stronger protection for CUR against thermal degradation and photodegradation. Stability of nanoparticles increased with decreasing pH values. In vitro simulated digestion exhibited that DNPs had lower release rate of CUR in SGF and higher antioxidant activity of its digestion products. Data may provide a comprehensive reference for selection of loading approach when constructing nanoparticles based on proteins/polysaccharides electrostatic complexes.

A review of curcumin in food preservation: Delivery system and photosensitization

As a natural polyphenol, curcumin has been used as an alternative to synthetic preservatives in food preservation. Different from previous reviews that mainly focus on the pH-responsive discoloration of curcumin to detect changes in food quality in real time, this paper focuses on the perspective of the delivery system and photosensitization of curcumin for food preservation. The delivery system is an effective means to overcome the challenges of curcumin like instability, hydrophobicity, and low bioavailability. Curcumin as a photosensitizer can effectively sterilize to preserve food. The practical fresh-keeping effects of the delivery system and photosensitization of curcumin on foods (fruits/vegetables, animal-derived food, and grain) were summarized comprehensively, including shelf-life extension, maintenance of physicochemical properties, nutritional quality, and sensory. Future research should focus on the development of novel curcumin-loaded materials used for food preservation, and most importantly, the biosafety and accumulation toxicity associated with these materials should be explored.

Effect of carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan coating on the stability and colon-targeted delivery performance of fucoxanthin-loaded gliadin nanoparticles

Fucoxanthin (FUC) is a hydrophobic carotenoid that has a protective effect on the colon. To exert the beneficial effects of FUC in the colon and expand its application in functional food, FUC was encapsulated in carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan (CMKGM)-coated gliadin nanoparticles (Gli-CMKGM NPs) in this paper. Gli-CMKGM NPs were prepared at pH 5.0 with Gli/CMKGM mass ratio of 1:1. The formation of Gli-CMKGM NPs was associated with hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions and electrostatic attractions. Additionally, Gli-CMKGM NPs exhibited good stability to pH, salt, heating and storage. The results showed that FUC had been successfully encapsulated in Gli-CMKGM NPs, and the encapsulation efficiency of FUC-Gli-CMKGM NPs was significantly higher than that of uncoated FUC-Gli NPs. FUC-Gli-CMKGM NPs had a nano-spherical structure, and embedded FUC in Gli-CMKGM NPs improved their stabilities to photodegradation and thermal degradation. Furthermore, in vitro release and in vivo organ distribution studies showed that FUC-Gli-CMKGM NPs had an excellent colon targeting function. Overall, our findings illustrated the promise of CMKGM-coated Gli NPs for constructing targeted delivery systems for FUC.

An Overview of Antitumour Activity of Polysaccharides

Cancer incidence and mortality are rapidly increasing worldwide; therefore, effective therapies are required in the current scenario of increasing cancer cases. Polysaccharides are a family of natural polymers that hold unique physicochemical and biological properties, and they have become the focus of current antitumour drug research owing to their significant antitumour effects. In addition to the direct antitumour activity of some natural polysaccharides, their structures offer versatility in synthesizing multifunctional nanocomposites, which could be chemically modified to achieve high stability and bioavailability for delivering therapeutics into tumor tissues. This review aims to highlight recent advances in natural polysaccharides and polysaccharide-based nanomedicines for cancer therapy.

Co-Encapsulation of Tannic Acid and Resveratrol in Zein/Pectin Nanoparticles: Stability, Antioxidant Activity, and Bioaccessibility

Hydrophilic tannic acid and hydrophobic resveratrol were successfully co-encapsulated in zein nanoparticles prepared using antisolvent precipitation and then coated with pectin by electrostatic deposition. The encapsulation efficiencies of the tannic acid and resveratrol were 51.5 ± 1.9% and 77.2 ± 3.2%, respectively. The co-encapsulated nanoparticles were stable against aggregation at the investigated pH range of 2.0 to 8.0 when heated at 80 °C for 2 h and when the NaCl concentration was below 50 mM. The co-encapsulated tannic acid and resveratrol exhibited stronger in vitro antioxidant activity than ascorbic acid, as determined by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl free radical (DPPH·) and 2,2'-azinobis (3-ethylberizothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical cation (ABTS+·) scavenging assays. The polyphenols-loaded nanoparticles significantly decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration and increased the superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities in peroxide-treated human hepatoma cells (HepG2). An in vitro digestion model was used to study the gastrointestinal fate of the nanoparticles. In the stomach, encapsulation inhibited tannic acid release, but promoted resveratrol release. However, in the small intestine, it led to a relatively high bioaccessibility of 76% and 100% for resveratrol and tannic acid, respectively. These results suggest that pectin-coated zein nanoparticles have the potential for the co-encapsulation of both polar and nonpolar nutraceuticals or drugs.

Delivery of curcumin by shellac encapsulation: Stability, bioaccessibility, freeze-dried redispersibility, and solubilization

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Shellac can nano-encapsulate curcumin by pH cycle.

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The starting point of the design is economy, simplicity, energy saving and safety.

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High loading capacity of curcumin is the unique advantage of shellac nanoparticles.

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The nanoparticles had good physicochemical stability and bioaccessibility.

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The redispersibility is proportional to the mass ratio of shellac-to-curcumin.

Curcumin is an active ingredient with multiple functions, however, its application is limited by its low stability, bioaccessibility, freeze-dried redispersibility, and solubilization. The work aims to improve the application of curcumin (Cur) by encapsulation. Shellac was the wall material inspired by its pH-dependent deprotonation and amphiphilic nature to form nanoparticles. The curcumin/shellac nanoparticles (S/Cur) exhibited a bright spot of high loading capacity (the maximum of higher than 70 %), while still having high encapsulation efficiency (the minimum of higher than 85 %). Transmission electron microscopy showed that S/Cur was a spherical structure. It exhibited good physical stability, including pH (4.0–8.0), ionic strength (NaCl, < 900 mM), thermo stability (80 ℃, 180 min), and storage stability (light and dark, 4 and 25 ℃, 20 days). Meanwhile, the chemical stability was increased by encapsulation. Furthermore, the bioaccessibility of Cur was improved to 75.95 %, which is attributed to the pH response of shellac. Additionally, S/Cur had freeze-dried redispersibility and solubilization, which is proportional to the mass ratio of shellac-to-Cur. The mechanism of S/Cur formation involved hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bonds, and the nanoconfined Cur was amorphous.

Zein-based nano-delivery systems for encapsulation and protection of hydrophobic bioactives: A review

Zein is a kind of excellent carrier materials to construct nano-sized delivery systems for hydrophobic bioactives, owing to its unique interfacial behavior, such as self-assembly and packing into nanoparticles. In this article, the chemical basis and preparation methods of zein nanoparticles are firstly reviewed, including chemical crosslinking, emulsification/solvent evaporation, antisolvent, pH-driven method, etc., as well as the pros and cons of different preparation methods. Various strategies to improve their physicochemical properties are then summarized. Lastly, the encapsulation and protection effects of zein-based nano-sized delivery systems (e.g., nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanomicelles and nanogels) are discussed, using curcumin as a model bioactive ingredient. This review will provide guidance for the in-depth development of hydrophobic bioactives formulations and improve the application value of zein in the food industry.

Co-assembly of egg white-derived peptides and protein-polysaccharide complexes for curcumin encapsulation: The enhancement of stability, redispersibility, and bioactivity

In this study, a nanocomposite was developed by introducing egg white-derived peptides (EWDP) into protein-polysaccharide complexes to trigger the self-assembly of EWDP for encapsulating curcumin (Cur) via the pH-driven method. In this system, EWDP could cooperate with protein-polysaccharide complexes to exert superior colloidal properties with excellent Cur aqueous solubility, redispersibility, and physical stability and act as a bioactivity amplifier to endow the delivery system with the synergistic antioxidant activity. This phenomenon was ascribed to the additional hydrophobic cavities, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic interactions organized by EWDP. Additionally, the presence of EWDP could considerably boost the cellular antioxidant activity of Cur by decreasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, improving free radical scavenging capacity, and recovering the activity of endogenous antioxidant enzymes. These findings might open up an avenue to reinforce lipophilic nutraceuticals' physicochemical properties and functionalities based on the co-assembly of food-derived peptides and protein-polysaccharide complexes.

Preparation, Characteristics, and Advantages of Plant Protein-Based Bioactive Molecule Delivery Systems

As a renewable resource, the market trend of plant protein has increased significantly in recent years. Compared with animal protein, plant protein production has strong sustainability factors and a lower environmental impact. Many bioactive substances have poor stability, and poor absorption effects limit their application in food. Plant protein-based carriers could improve the water solubility, stability, and bioavailability of bioactive substances by different types of delivery systems. In this review, we present a detailed and concise summary of the effects and advantages of various plant protein-based carriers in the encapsulation, protection, and delivery of bioactive substances. Furthermore, the research progress of food-grade bioactive ingredient delivery systems based on plant protein preparation in recent years is summarized, and some current challenges and future research priorities are highlighted. There are some key findings and conclusions: (i) plant proteins have numerous functions: as carriers for transportation systems, a shell or core of a system, or food ingredients; (ii) plant protein-based carriers could improve the water solubility, stability, and bioavailability of bioactive substances by different types of delivery systems; and (iii) plant protein-based carriers stabilize bioactive substances with potential applications in the food and nutrition fields.

Fabrication, characterization and functional attributes of zein-egg white derived peptides (EWDP)-chitosan ternary nanoparticles for encapsulation of curcumin: Role of EWDP

The food-derived peptides hydrolyzed from native food protein matrix exhibited various bioactivities and multimeric structures, which make them the promising well-defined nanoplatforms candidates to co-deliver themselves with other bioactive compounds. In this study, zein-egg white derived peptides-chitosan (Z-EWDP-CS) ternary nanoparticles (NPs) were successfully fabricated by the spontaneous assembly to enhance the stability and bioactivity of curcumin (Cur). The novel ternary NPs exhibited a typical nano-spherical structure (138.63 nm, 40.50 mV), and adorable encapsulation efficiency (EE, 93.87%) for Cur. FTIR, XRD and DSC results verified that Cur changed from a crystalline state to an amorphous state, and was successfully entrapped in the cavity of Z-EWDP-CS NPs. Furthermore, the thermal stability, photochemical stability, salt stability, and antioxidant activity were considerably improved in the NPs after the addition of EWDP. Our results demonstrate that the food-derived peptides could be an ideal affinity agent for the co-delivery of themselves with hydrophobic nutraceuticals.

A review of factors affecting the stability of zein-based nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds: from construction to application

Zein-based nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds have positive prospects in the food industry, but an important limiting factor for development is colloidal instability. Currently, extensive researches are focused on solving the instability of zein nanoparticles, but since the beginning of the studies, there has not been a summary of the factors affecting the stability of zein-based nanoparticles. In the present work, the factors were reviewed comprehensively from the perspective of carrier construction and application evaluation. The former mainly includes type, quantity, and characteristics of biopolymer, the mass ratio of biopolymer/bioactive compound to zein, blending sequence of biopolymer, and location of encapsulated bioactive compounds. The latter mainly includes pH, heating, ionic strength, storage, freeze-drying, and gastrointestinal digestion. The former is the prerequisite for the success of the latter. The challenge is that stability research is limited to the laboratory level, and it is difficult to ensure that the stability results are suitable for commercial food matrices due to their complexity. At the laboratory level, the future trends are the influence of external energy and the cross-complexity and uniformity of stability research. The review is expected to provide systematic understanding and guidance for the development of zein-based nanoparticles stability.

Co-assembly of foxtail millet prolamin-lecithin/alginate sodium in citric acid-potassium phosphate buffer for delivery of quercetin

Foxtail millet nanoparticles with smaller mean size at ∼130 nm and narrower polydispersity index at ∼0.05 were prepared in citric acid-potassium phosphate buffer (pH 8.0). Through lecithin (Lec)/sodium alginate (Alg) coating, a hydrophobic FP core, a Lec monolayer, and a hydrophilic Alg shell were formed spontaneously. Dissociation experiment revealed that electrostatic interaction and hydrogen bonding were main driving forces for the formation and maintenance of stable FP-Lec/Alg NPs. In addition, Lec/Alg coated NPs exerted an important role in sustaining the controlled release of the encapsulated quercetin under simulated gastrointestinal tract conditions. Cellular uptake test exhibited that FP-Lec-Alg NPs cold enter epithelial cells in a time-dependent manner, showing the maximum uptake efficiency were 22% and 24%, respectively, after 2 h of incubation. About 220 nm NPs can be recovered by adding 10% (w/v) sucrose. FP-Lec-Alg NPs were found to be promising delivery materials to deliver quercetin and improve its bioavailability.

Enhanced Stability and Oral Bioavailability of Cannabidiol in Zein and Whey Protein Composite Nanoparticles by a Modified Anti-Solvent Approach

Wide applications of cannabidiol (CBD) in the food and pharmaceutical industries are limited due to its low bioavailability, sensitivity to environmental pressures and low water solubility. Zein nanoparticles were stabilized by whey protein (WP) for the delivery of cannabidiol (CBD) using a modified anti-solvent approach. Particle size, surface charge, encapsulation efficiency, and re-dispersibility of nanoparticles were influenced by the zein to WP ratio. Under optimized conditions at 1:4, zein–WP nanoparticles were fabricated with CBD (200 μg/mL) and further characterized. WP absorbed on zein surface via hydrogen bond, hydrophobic forces, and electrostatic attraction. The zein–WP nanoparticles showed excellent storage stability (4 °C, dark) and effectively protected CBD degradation against heat and UV light. In vivo pharmacokinetic study demonstrated that CBD in zein–WP nanoparticles displayed 2-times and 1.75-fold enhancement in maximum concentration (C max) and the area under curve (AUC) as compared to free-form CBD. The data indicated the feasibility of developing zein–WP based nanoparticles for the encapsulation, protection, and delivery of CBD.

pH-driven self-assembly of alcohol-free curcumin-loaded propylene glycol alginate nanoparticles

The purpose of this paper was to explore the application of propylene glycol alginate (PGA) alone in alcohol-free curcumin-loaded nanoparticles (PGA/Cur) prepared by a pH-driven method to solve the curcumin shortcomings of low water solubility, stability and bioavailability. One of the bright spots of PGA/Cur was its extremely high loading capacity. PGA/Cur formed a spherical structure mainly by hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bonding, making curcumin amorphous. PGA/Cur exhibited stability at pH 4.0-8.0 due to its high surface charges. PGA/Cur still showed a unimodal size distribution even under 3000 mM ionic strength. Heating caused uneven size distribution, but the smaller size still presented its thermostability. PGA/Cur exhibited good physical stability and slowed down the curcumin degradation with t_1/2 of 37.47 days during storage. PGA/Cur could maintain structural integrity in gastric acid and released curcumin in the intestine, thus improving the bioaccessibility of curcumin. Additionally, PGA/Cur displayed the solubilization after lyophilization.

Incorporation of Different Metal Ion for Tuning Color and Enhancing Antioxidant Activity of Curcumin/Palygorskite Hybrid Materials

Curcumin is one of the dietary dyes extracted from turmeric and used for prevention and treatment of various illnesses. However, the low bioavailability and poor stability of curcumin limits its relevant applications. Therefore, different metal ions including Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Al³⁺, or Fe³⁺ were incorporated to tune the color, enhance the environmental stability and antioxidant activity of curcumin in the presence of palygorskite in this study. The as-prepared samples were studied using X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Zeta potential, and transmission electron microscopy. In addition, the density functional theory calculation was also performed to explore the possible interaction among metal ions, curcumin and palygorskite. It was found that the color changing and stability enhancing were ascribed to the curcumin-metal ions coordination as well as chemical interactions between curcumin-metal complex and palygorskite. Moreover, the as-prepared composites showed more excellent color, thermal stability, antioxidant activity, and fluorescence properties than that of the curcumin/palygorskite composites due to the presence of metal ions. The finding of this investigation may contribute to developing the multifunctional composites with different colors and good antioxidant activity for relevant applications based on curcumin and palygorskite.

Construction of biopolymer-based nanoencapsulation of functional food ingredients using the pH-driven method: a review

Biopolymer-based nanoencapsulation presents great performance in the delivery of functional food ingredients. In recent years, the pH-driven method has received considerable attention due to its unique characteristics of low energy and organic solvent-free during the construction of biopolymer-based nanoencapsulation. This review summarized the fundamental knowledge of pH-driven biopolymer-based nanoencapsulation. The principle of the pH-driven method is the protonation reaction of functional food ingredients that change with pH. The stability of functional food ingredients in an alkaline environment is a prerequisite for the adoption of this method. pH regulator is also an important influencing factor. Different coating materials used to the pH-driven nanoencapsulation were discussed, including single and composite materials, mainly focusing on proteins. Besides, the application evaluations of pH-driven nanoencapsulation in food were analyzed. The future development trends will be the influence of pH regulators on the carrier, the design of new non-protein-based carriers, the quantification of driving forces, the absorption mechanism of encapsulated nutrients, and the molecular interaction between the wall material and the intestinal mucosa. In conclusion, pH-driven biopolymer-based nanoencapsulation of functional food ingredients will have broad prospects for development.

Development of pH-driven zein/tea saponin composite nanoparticles for encapsulation and oral delivery of curcumin

The purpose of this paper was to overcome the challenges of curcumin by zein/tea saponin composite nanoparticles (Z/TSNPs) without any organic reagents and high-energy equipment. The spherical Z/TSNPs exhibited good physical stability, the conditions of which included pH at 5.0-8.0, heating at 80 ℃, ionic strength within 100 mM, and storage at 25 ℃ for 30 days. Meanwhile, Z/TSNPs showed excellent redispersibility. Z/TSNPs were used to encapsulate and deliver curcumin (Cur-Z/TSNPs), showing encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity of 83.73% and 22.33%, respectively. Cur-Z/TSNPs exhibited good chemical stability during storage, and the effect of light on Cur-Z/TSNPs was smaller than that of free curcumin. Furthermore, Cur-Z/TSNPs improved the solubilization and bioaccessibility of curcumin about 290 and 5 times, respectively. Besides, the encapsulation changed the crystalline state of curcumin to amorphous, and the pH-driven mechanism was probably related to hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions.

One-step self-assembly of curcumin-loaded zein/sophorolipid nanoparticles: physicochemical stability, redispersibility, solubility and bioaccessibility

Curcumin, a polyphenolic compound isolated from turmeric, exhibits various biological activities. The application of this nutraceutical in foods, however, is limited due to its extreme hydrophobicity, inferior stability, and poor bioaccessibility. The purpose of this paper is to prepare alcohol-free curcumin-loaded zein/sophorolipid nanoparticles (Cur-Z/SNPs) by one-step self-assembly to overcome the abovementioned challenges of curcumin. In detail, Cur-Z/SNPs were formed by mixing curcumin, zein, and sophorolipid under neutral conditions without any organic reagents or high energy equipment. The encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity of Cur-Z/SNPs were 94.08% and 11.50%, respectively. The spherical shape of Cur-Z/SNPs was observed by using a transmission electron microscope. The self-assembly mechanism involved hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions, and the crystalline nature of curcumin changed to amorphous during self-assembly. Cur-Z/SNPs enhanced the zein denaturation resistance. They exhibited complete redispersibility and improved the aqueous solubility by approximately 246 times compared with free curcumin. The fresh Cur-Z/SNPs exhibited physicochemical stability at pH 5.0-8.0, ionic strength within 250 mM, and storage at 25 °C and 4 °C for 30 days. Notably, Cur-Z/SNPs could achieve excellent storage stability at room temperature as compared to those at refrigeration. Furthermore, lyophilization had a positive effect on storage stability, did not change the pH stability, and slightly reduced the ionic strength stability. Besides, Cur-Z/SNPs increased the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl free radical (DPPH˙) scavenging capacity compared to free curcumin. The bioaccessibility of curcumin was increased by about 6 times by Cur-Z/SNPs. These findings provided new insight into the application of hydrophobic nutrients in alcohol-free functional foods.