A combined enzymatic and ionic cross-linking strategy for pea protein/sodium alginate double-network hydrogel with excellent mechanical properties and freeze-thaw stability

Plant-based fascia tissues: Exploring materials and techniques for realistic simulation

The growing demand for sustainable and ethical food options has led to significant advancements in plant-based meat substitutes (PBMS). PBMS have made considerable progress in simulating the taste, texture, and sensory properties of animal meat. Connective tissue is a fundamental component of animal meat that significantly influences tenderness, texture, and sensory properties. However, the imitation of realistic connective tissues has received relatively less attention in the PBMS industry. The current work focuses on exploring materials and techniques for the replication of plant-based connective tissues (PBCT). By understanding the structural and functional characteristics of animal connective tissues (ACT), it is possible to replicate these characteristics in PBCT. Hydrogels, with their ability to simulate certain properties of ACT, present a viable material for the creation of PBCT. To achieve the desired simulation, their mechanical and structural properties need to be enhanced by using several materials and several physical techniques.

Adenosine monophosphate boosts the cryoprotection of ultrasound-assisted freezing to frozen surimi: Insights into protein structures and gelling behaviors

Ultrasound-assisted freezing (UAF) is a clean technique for meat cryoprotections; however, its effectiveness is still limited compared to conventional cryoprotectants, e.g., sugars, polyols, especially at high dosages. To resolve this problem, a synergistic cryoprotection strategy was developed in this study. Adenosine monophosphate (AMP), an adenosine-type food additive, was introduced into frozen surimi at a considerably reduced content (0.08%), yet substantially enhanced the efficiency of UAF to comparable levels of commercial cryoprotectant (4% sucrose with 4% sorbitol). Specifically, UAF/AMP treatment retarded denaturation of surimi myofibrillar protein (MP) during 60-day frozen storage, as evidenced by its increased solubility, Ca2+-ATPase activity, sulfhydryl content, declined surface hydrophobicity, particle size, and stabilized protein conformation. Gels of UAF/AMP-treated surimi also demonstrated more stabilized microstructures, uniform water distributions, enhanced mechanical properties and water-holding capacities. This study provided a feasible approach to boost the cryoprotective performance of UAF, thus expanding its potential applications in frozen food industry.

Effect of sanxan as novel natural gel modifier on the physicochemical and structural properties of microbial transglutaminase-induced mung bean protein isolate gels

Mung bean protein isolate (MBPI) has attracted much attention as an emerging plant protein. However, its application was limited by the poor gelling characteristics. Thus, the effect of sanxan (SAN) on the gelling behavior of MBPI under microbial transglutaminase (MTG)-induced condition were explored in this study. The results demonstrated that SAN remarkably enhanced the storage modulus, water-holding capacity and mechanical strength. Furthermore, SAN changed the microstructure of MBPI gels to become more dense and ordered. The results of zeta potential indicated the electrostatic interactions existed between SAN and MBPI. The incorporation of SAN altered the secondary structure and molecular conformation of MBPI, and hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding were necessary to maintain the network structure. Additionally, in vitro digestion simulation results exhibited that SAN remarkably improved the capability of MBPI gels to deliver bioactive substances. These findings provided a practical strategy to use natural SAN to improve legume protein gels.

Acid-induced hydrogels of edible Chlorella pyrenoidosa protein with composite biopolymers network

This study aimed to prepare Glucono-δ-lactone (GDL)-induced Chlorella pyrenoidosa protein (CPP) hydrogel and further investigate the effect of polysaccharides on the mechanical properties and stability enhancement of the composite hydrogels. Polysaccharides composed of different ratios of low acyl gellan gum (GE) and guar gum (GU) imparted dense honeycomb-like networks and adjustable textural properties to the composite hydrogels induced by CaCl2. In particular, the hardness of hydrogels increased significantly from 14 to 833 g. Scanning electron microscopy results revealed that CPP-GE/GU composite hydrogels had better stable spatial porous structures. Moreover, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) indicated hydrogen bonding interaction between CPP and GE/GU. The composite network showed improved viscoelasticity, increased thermal stability, and self-healing ability of hydrogels. The composite hydrogels also showed high water holding (89-98%) and swelling (747-862%) properties compared to the pure CPP hydrogel. These findings further expand CPP hydrogel products and broaden application in plant protein-based food.

Sodium alginate/ager colourimetric film on porous substrate layer: Potential in intelligent food packaging

Colourimetric indicators have potential applications in monitoring food freshness and offer a simple, rapid, effective, and economical approach. Blending sodium alginate (SA) with agar (AG), an ideal choice for solid substrates in colourimetric indicators, can modify mechanical compliance and optical properties. However, the limitations in the water-sustaining capacity and dye migration of hydrogel substrates significantly impede the scalability and commercial application of these indicators. In this study, we designed and prepared a bilayer-structured indicator featuring an SA/AG colourimetric film on a porous Polypropylene fluoride (PVDF)/SiO2 encapsulation film. This design aims to enhance the water-sustaining capacity and reduce dye migration from the SA/AG colourimetric film. The PVDF/SiO2 composite film was prepared using a peeling-assisted phase-conversion process, which enabled the indicator to selectively allow gas, but not water, to pass through its porous substrate. Furthermore, we tested the layered indicator film by monitoring changes in shrimp freshness. The results revealed significant and distinguishable colour changes in the indicators corresponding to the freshness and spoilage of the shrimp.

Construction and characterization of alginate/calcium β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate hydrogels: Effect of M/G ratios and calcium ion concentration

Calcium β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (CaHMB), a functional calcium salt, is used to maintain and improve muscle health. Here, a new hydrogel material prepared from alginate (ALG) with three M/G ratios (1:1, 2:1, and 1:2) and CaHMB (0-2 mg/mL) was investigated. CaHMB regulates the formation and properties of ALG hydrogels through chelation and hydrogen bonding. When the M/G ratio was 2:1, the anionic groups of CaHMB containing carboxyl and hydroxyl groups formed hydrogen bonds with the polysaccharide chains, hindering the capture of Ca2+ by the G-residue fragments of ALG, which in turn retarded the gelation process. The noncalcium cross-linked polysaccharide chain structure of ALG and the anionic group of CaHMB also affected the water distribution in the hydrogel, especially when M residue content ≥G residue content. Lower M/G ratios and higher CaHMB concentrations could increase the number of "egg box" crosslinking junctions of calcium alginate, and the microstructure was denser in the gel pores, resulting in a stronger gel strength and more free water bound in the gel matrix. This study provides a theoretical and methodological basis for the design of novel hydrogels by studying the crosslinking features of ALG/CaHMB.

Preparation of Transglutaminase-Catalyzed Rice Bran Protein Emulsion Gels as a Curcumin Vehicle

Protein-based emulsion gels have tunable viscoelasticity that can be applied to improve the stability of bioactive ingredients. As the by-product of rice processing, rice bran protein (RBP) has high nutritional value and good digestibility, exhibiting unique value in the development of hypoallergenic formula. In this study, the effect of transglutaminase (TGase) cross-linking on the physicochemical properties of RBP emulsion gels was investigated. To improve the stability of curcumin against environmental stress, the entrapment efficiency and stability of curcumin in the emulsion gel systems were also evaluated. The results indicated that TGase increased the viscoelastic modulus of RBP emulsion gels, resulting in a solid-like structure. Moreover, the entrapment efficiency of curcumin was increased to 93.73% after adding TGase. The thermal stability and photo-stability of curcumin were enhanced to 79.54% and 85.87%, respectively, compared with the sample without TGase addition. The FTIR results showed that TGase induced the cross-linking of protein molecules and the secondary structure change in RBP. Additionally, SEM observation confirmed that the incorporation of TGase promoted the formation of a compact network structure. This study demonstrated the potential of RBP emulsion gels in protecting curcumin and might provide an alternative strategy to stabilize functional ingredients.

Lactoferrin-Chitosan Composite Hydrogels Induced by Microbial Transglutaminase: Potential Delivery Systems for Thermosensitive Bioactive Substances

In this work, lactoferrin (LF)-chitosan (CS) composite hydrogels with good loading capacity of thermosensitive bioactive substances were successfully obtained by microbial transglutaminase (MTG)-induced cross-linking. We evaluated the rheological, textural, and microstructural characteristics of the composite hydrogels under different conditions. The results demonstrated that the concentrations of LF and CS as well as the amount of MTG could regulate the textural properties, rheological properties, and water holding capability. The results of FTIR and fluorescence spectroscopy indicated that the main interactions within the composite gel were hydrogen and isopeptide bonds. Additionally, in vitro digestion simulation results verified that riboflavin kept stable in stomach due to the protection of LF-CS composite hydrogels and was released in small intestine. These results suggested that thermosensitive bioactive substance could be encapsulated and delivered by the LF-CS composite hydrogel, which could be applied in lots of potential applications in functional food as a new material.

Synthesis of novel bioadhesive hydrogels via facile Thiol-Ene click chemistry for wound healing applications

Development of outstanding, cost-effective and elastic hydrogels as bioadhesive using Thiol-Ene click chemistry was verified. The visible light photocrosslinkable hydrogels composed of methacrylated chitosan/2,2'-(Ethylenedioxy) diethanethiol formed in presence of eosin-Y photoinitiator. Such hydrogels hold great promise for wound healing applications due to their tunable properties. Main components of hydrogels were extensively characterized using spectroscopic techniques for chemical analysis, thermal analysis, and topologic nanostructure. Various optimization conditions for best gelation time were investigated. Mechanical properties of tensile strength and elongation at break (%) were verified for best wound healing applications. Optimum hydrogel was subjected to for cytotoxicity and microbial suppression evaluation and in-vivo wound healing test for efficient wound healing evaluations. Our results demonstrate the potential use of injectable hydrogels as valuable bioadhesives in bioengineering and biomedical applications, particularly in wound closure and patches.

Development of interpenetrating network hydrogels: Enhancing the release and bioaccessibility of green tea polyphenols

Green Tea polyphenols (GTP) are important bioactive compounds with excellent physiological regulation functions. However, they are easily destroyed by the gastric environment during digestion. In this work, a sodium alginate (SA)-gellan gum (GG) interpenetrating network (IPN) hydrogel was synthesized to protect and delivery GTP. The ratio of SA/GG significantly affects the network structure of IPN hydrogels and the performance of delivering GTP. The hydrogel formed by interpenetrating 20 % GG with 80 % SA as the main network had the highest water uptake (55 g/g), holding capacity (950 mg/g), and freeze-thaw stability, with springiness reaching 0.933 and hardness reaching 1300 g, which due to the filling effect and non-covalent interaction. Rheological tests showed that the crosslink density of IPN hydrogel in SA-dominated network was improved by the addition of GG to make it better bound to GTP, and the higher water uptake meant that the system could absorb more GTP-containing solution. This IPN hydrogel maintained 917.3 mg/g encapsulation efficiency at the highest loading capacity (1080 mg/g) in tests as delivery system. In in vitro digestion simulations, owing to the pH responsiveness, the IPN hydrogel reduced the loss of GTP in gastric fluid, achieving a bioaccessibility of 71.6 % in the intestinal tract.

Synergistic effects of microbial transglutaminase and apple pectin on the gelation properties of pea protein isolate and its application to probiotic encapsulation

The low gelation capacity of pea protein isolate (PPI) limits their use in food industry. Therefore, microbial transglutaminase (MTG) and apple pectin (AP) were combined to modify PPI to enhance its gelling characteristics, and the mechanism of MTG-induced PPI-AP composite gel generation was investigated. PPI (10 wt%) could not form a gel at 40 °C, while MTG-treated PPI (10 wt%) formed a self-supporting gel at 40 °C. Subsequently, the addition of AP further promoted the crosslinking of PPI and significantly improved the water holding capacity, rheology, and strength of PPI gels, which was attributed to both hydrogen and isopeptide bonds in the composite gel. Additionally, the PPI-AP composite gel showed excellent protection ability, and the survival rate of probiotics could reach over 90%, which could be used as an effective delivery system. This study verified that MTG and AP were efficient in enhancing the functional quality of PPI gels.

Survivability of probiotics in Pickering emulsion gels stabilized by salmon by-product protein / sodium alginate soluble complexes at neutral pH

Adequate amounts of live probiotics reaching the gut are necessary to maintain host health. However, the harsh environment during processing, the low pH of human gastric acid, and the high concentration of bile salts in the gut can significantly reduce survivability of probiotics. In this work, we propose a simple Pickering emulsion gels strategy to encapsulate Lactobacillus plantarum Lp90 into oil droplets filled in calcium alginate gels to improve its viability under pasteurization and gastrointestinal conditions. The emulsion gels were stabilized by the soluble complexes of salmon by-product protein (SP) and sodium alginate (ALG), and the aqueous phase was solidified by the addition of calcium. The interaction between SP and ALG and the effect of ALG concentration on emulsifying ability and emulsion stability were studied. The results from optical imaging, nuclear magnetic resonance, and rheological properties showed that the stability and viscosity of the emulsions gradually increased with the increased ALG concentration, while the droplet size of the emulsions and the content of free water in the system decreased significantly. Especially when the concentration of ALG was 1 %, the emulsion system was stable under the environment of high temperature and high ionic strength, and the water holding capacity was the highest. Through pasteurization and gastrointestinal digestion experiments, it was found that the survival rate of probiotics encapsulated in emulsion gels was significantly higher than that encapsulated in emulsions or hydrogels, which benefited from the dual action of oil droplets and calcium alginate gels network. These results provide a new strategy for the processing of probiotics and the high-value utilization of marine fish by-products.

Regulate structure and properties of κ-carrageenan/konjac glucomannan composite hydrogel by filling effects of Quillaja saponin-stabilized solid lipid nanostructure

κ-Carrageenan/konjac glucomannan (κ-CA/KGM) composite hydrogels often fail to meet industrial requirements due to their low gel strength and poor mechanical properties, while solid lipid nanoparticles are potential materials to address this challenge due to their good biocompatibility. In the study, we propose using Quillaja saponin-stabilized solid lipid nanoparticle (QSLN) as nanofillers to enhance properties of κ-carrageenan/konjac glucan (κ-CA/KGM) composite hydrogels, and with emphasis on the effect of QSLN filling concentration on the structure and properties of composite hydrogels and the possible mechanisms were investigated. The best performance of QSLN-filled composite hydrogels was achieved at the QSLN concentration of 2.4 %. QSLN was uniformly distributed in the hydrogel matrix and formed electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding interactions with the matrix at an appropriate filling level, which enhanced the textural and rheological properties of the hydrogel greatly. In addition, the results of low-field NMR experiments showed that the filling of QSLN reduced the water mobility by enhancing the entanglement of polymer chains in the hydrogel matrix, which improved the freeze-thaw stability and regulated the swelling and deswelling behavior of the composite hydrogel. However, with the increasing of QSLN filling concentration, the above improvements were weakened by the depletion of van der Waals interactions due to the large amount of QSLN aggregation and the weakening of electrostatic interaction. In turn, the hydrogel was found to modulate the crystalline behavior of QSLN by X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimeter monitoring. Overall, the optimal synergistic effect between structure and properties could be achieved when the QSLN filling concentration was 2.4 %. These results provide a basis for the development of products that require excellent gel properties and structure.

Double network hydrogels: Design, fabrication, and application in biomedicines and foods

Research on the design, fabrication, and application of double network (DN) hydrogels, assembled from pairs of polymers, has grown recently due to their unique structural, physicochemical, and functional properties. DN hydrogels can be designed to exhibit a broader range of functional attributes than single network (SN) ones, which extends their applications in various fields. There has been strong interest in the development of biopolymer DN hydrogels because of their environmental, sustainability, and safety benefits. However, there is limited knowledge on the formation and application of these novel materials. This article reviews the principles underlying the design and fabrication of hydrogels using different crosslinking approaches, including covalent and/or non-covalent bonding, and the formation mechanisms, network structures, and functional attributes of different DN hydrogels. The impact of polymer composition, structural organization, and bonding on the mechanical and functional properties of DN hydrogels is reviewed. Potential applications of these hydrogels are highlighted, including in tissue engineering, biomedicines, and foods. The functional attributes of DN hydrogels can be tailored to each of these applications by careful selection of the biopolymers and crosslinking mechanisms used to assemble them. Finally, areas where further research are needed to overcome the current limitations of DN hydrogels are highlighted.

Sodium alginate-sodium hyaluronate-hydrolyzed silk for microencapsulation and sustained release of kidney tea saponin: The regulation of human intestinal flora in vitro

Kidney tea saponin (KTS) exhibits considerable efficacy in lowering glucose levels; however, it does not have widespread applications owing to its low intestinal utilization. Therefore, in the present study, we prepared sodium alginate (SA)/sodium hyaluronate (HA)/hydrolyzed silk (SF) gel beads for the effective encapsulation and targeted intestinal release of KTS. The gel beads exhibited an encapsulation rate of 90.67 % ± 0.27 % and a loading capacity of 3.11 ± 0.21 mg/mL; furthermore, the release rate of KTS was 95.46 % ± 0.02 % after 8 h of simulated digestion. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed that the hydroxyl in SA/HA/SF-KTS was shifted toward the strong peak; this was related to KTS encapsulation. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy revealed that the gel bead space network facilitates KTS encapsulation. In addition, the ability of KTS and the gel beads to inhibit α-amylase (IC50 = 0.93 and 1.37 mg/mL, respectively) and α-glucosidase enzymes (IC50 = 1.17 and 0.93 mg/mL, respectively) was investigated. In vitro colonic fermentation experiments revealed that KTS increased the abundance of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes and butyric acid-producing bacteria. The study showed that the developed gel-loading system plays a vital role in delivering bioactive substances, achieving slow release, and increasing the abundance and diversity of intestinal flora.

Study on the ice crystals growth under pectin gels with different crosslinking strengths by modulating the degree of amidation in HG domain

The ice crystal morphology formed under a series of amidated pectin gels with various crosslink strengths were investigated. The results showed that as the degree of amidation (DA) increased, pectin chains exhibited shorter homogalacturonan (HG) regions. Highly amidated pectin exhibited a faster gelation rate and a stronger gel micro-network via hydrogen bonds. Based on cryogenic scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM), smaller ice crystals were formed in frozen gel with low DA, suggesting that a weaker cross-linked gel micro-network was more effective at inhibiting crystallization. After sublimation, lyophilized gel scaffolds with high crosslink strength displayed less number of pores, high porosity, lower specific surface area, and greater mechanical strength. This study is expected to confirm that the microstructure and mechanical properties of freeze-dried pectin porous materials could be regulated by changing the crosslink strength of pectin chains, which is achieved by increasing the degree of amidation in the HG domains.

Role of conformation transition of high acyl gellan in the design of double network hydrogels

Double network hydrogels (DNs) with excellent strength and toughness have been preliminarily applied in the preparation of artificial foods. To evaluate the effect of conformation transition of ductile polymers on the physicochemical properties of DNs, we firstly prepared agarose (AR)/high acyl gellan (HAG) DNs and investigated their mechanical properties, and then calcium ion (Ca²⁺) was introduced into optimized AR/HAG DNs to regulate the conformation of ductile chains (HAG) for further increasing their mechanical properties. The mechanical strength of the optimized AR/HAG gel is 5 times and 2 times that of AR and HAG gel, respectively. Compared with adding Ca²⁺ method, immersing Ca²⁺ solution endowed optimized DNs with 5-fold increase in mechanical strength, outstanding textural properties and lower swelling ratio, which was attributed to the extended conformation of ductile chains. Furthermore, the obtained DNs were reminiscent of beef omasum based on their physicochemical properties. Optimized AR/HAG DNs after immersing in 2 wt% CaCl₂ solution exhibited comparable texture properties with beef omasum by three correlation analysis methods and sensory evaluation, providing a new strategy to fabricate biomimetic food with high chewiness by regulating the conformation of ductile polymers in DNs.

An ionic/thermal-responsive agar/alginate wet-spun microfiber-shaped hydrogel combined with grooved/wrinkled surface patterns and multi-functions

A dual stimuli-responsive wet-spun microfiber-shaped hydrogel is prepared by injecting a hot blend of two stimuli biopolymers alginate (i.e., ionic-responsive) and agar (i.e., temperature-responsive) into a pre-cooling and metal cation containing coagulation bath. Experimental results indicate the fiber microstructure could be manipulated by the extrusion rate and cooling temperature, achieving an anisotropic shrinkage characteristic and novel grooved/wrinkled surface patterns. Importantly, the integration of metal cations (e.g., Ca²⁺and/or Zn²⁺) was confirmed to significantly improve the hydrogel mechanical properties (i.e., double networks) and enhanced blue fluorescent intensity as a typical metal-polymer complexation formed within the agar gel matrix. Moreover, the functionality-independent double networks enabled typical pH-shape memory and sustainable antibacterial properties have also been demonstrated. Therefore, combing the facile fabricating approach and multifunctionality, this study would advance the development of stimuli-responsive hydrogel microfiber for complex biomedical systems.

The production of pH indicator Ca and Cu alginate ((1,4)- β -d-mannuronic acid and α -l-guluronic acid) cryogels containing anthocyanin obtained via red cabbage extraction for monitoring chicken fillet freshness

In recent days, intelligent food packaging has gained attention due to consumers' needs and monitoring of the freshness of food. Biopolymers are used to produce matrix parts and dye chemicals, because of their unique properties, such as biodegradability and biocompatibility. In this study, alginate molecules and anthocyanins were used to produce to monitor chicken fillet freshness via pH response characteristics. Anthocyanins' color and UV characteristics at different pHs were investigated. The obtained anthocyanin solution showed visible color response at different pH level. In the red cabbage extract, the anthocyanin concentration was as 0.65 ± 0.03 mg/g. Alginate and extracted anthocyanins from red cabbage were mixed at the solution phase, then metal alginate hydrogels were synthesized via crosslinking Ca²⁺ and Cu²⁺ with alginate molecules. Due to the porous structure of the cryogels, hydrogels were freeze dried at -80 °C for 24 h at vacuum atmosphere. The obtained cryogel indicated significant color changes from pH 4 to pH 10, and at a basic environment, the color change was observed with the naked eye. The porosity amounts and sizes of the produced cryogels were examined, the average pore amount of cryogels was found to be 85.46 ± 4.36 %, and the average pore size 97.98 ± 26.20 μm. Furthermore, it was seen that the color change was not directly related to the porosity, but the interaction of anthocyanin and metal alginate matrix effected color changes degree of cryogels. Due to the electronegativity of Cu²⁺ ions, and the use of a low amount of anthocyanin was found to be more suitable for color change. The color was changed to blue-purple while total volatile basic nitrogen content increased to 46.67 mg/100 g from 14.00 mg/100 g. As a result, prepared cryogels should be a better candidates for use as a freshness indicator and intelligent packaging.

Improving the cryoprotective effect of antifreeze proteins from Daucus carota on plant-based meat by eliminating N-glycosylation

As a novel animal meat alternative, plant-based meat (PBM) frequently suffers from quality problems as a result of freeze-thaw cycles in commercial transportation and household storage. There is a need to reduce the deterioration of PBM attributes, such as water holding capacity, as a result of these freeze-thaw cycles. In this study, Daucus carota antifreeze protein (DcAFP) and its deglycosylated mutant DcAFP-N294G were heterologously expressed in Komagataella phaffii X33. The effects of pretreatment with recombinant AFPs (rAFPs) on the microstructure, rheological properties, water mobility, and water distribution of PBM were assessed. The rDcAFP-N294G-treated PBM samples had superior viscoelasticity and water distribution features compared to the rDcAFP-treated group because the complex N-linked oligosaccharides did not interfere with the binding of rAFPs to ice molecules. In addition, rAFP pretreatment resulted in a smoother and flatter surface of the high-moisture protein extrudate matrix compared to the commercial cryoprotectant trehalose. Deglycosylated DcAFP has potential applications as a new effective cryoprotectant in meat alternatives.

Binary Hydrogels: Induction Methods and Recent Application Progress as Food Matrices for Bioactive Compounds Delivery-A Bibliometric Review

Food hydrogels are biopolymeric materials made from food-grade biopolymers with gelling properties (proteins and polysaccharides) and a 3D network capable of incorporating large amounts of water. They have sparked considerable interest because of their potential and broad application range in the biomedical and pharmaceutical sectors. However, hydrogel research in the field of food science is still limited. This knowledge gap provides numerous opportunities for implementing their unique properties, such as high water-holding capacity, moderated texture, compatibility with other substances, cell biocompatibility, biodegradability, and high resemblance to living tissues, for the development of novel, functional food matrices. For that reason, this article includes a bibliometric analysis characterizing research trends in food protein-polysaccharide hydrogels (over the last ten years). Additionally, it characterizes the most recent developments in hydrogel induction methods and the most recent application progress of hydrogels as food matrices as carriers for the targeted delivery of bioactive compounds. Finally, this article provides a future perspective on the need to evaluate the feasibility of using plant-based proteins and polysaccharides to develop food matrices that protect nutrients, including bioactive substances, throughout processing, storage, and digestion until they reach the specific targeted area of the digestive system.

An Eco-Friendly Antheraea Pernyi Silk Gland Protein/Sodium Alginate Multiple Network Hydrogel as Potential Drug Release Systems

To improve the versatility of the sodium alginate-loaded bio-hydrogels, Antheraea pernyi silk gland protein/sodium alginate drug-loaded hydrogels were prepared by using an eco-friendly multiple network cross-link technology. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and UV-Vis spectrophotometer were used separately to evaluate the chemical structure and drug release behavior of drug-loaded hydrogels. The antibacterial drug carrier gels were evaluated by using inhibition zone test against the S. aureus and E. coli. The CCK-8 assay was used to assess the biocompatibility of drug loaded hydrogels. The FT-IR results showed that there was a strong interaction within the drug loaded hydrogels, and the ASGP was beneficial to enhance the interaction within the drug loaded hydrogels. UV-Vis spectrophotometer results indicated the cumulative release reached 80% within 400 min. Antibacterial bio-hydrogels had a good antibacterial property, especially the antibacterial bio-hydrogels with bacitracin exhibits superior to other antibacterial agents. The drug-loaded bio-hydrogels exhibited the adhesion and proliferation of RSC96 cells and perfected biocompatibility. This provides a new idea for further research and development of tissue-friendly drug-loaded biomaterials.

Development and Characterization of a Low-Fat Mayonnaise Salad Dressing Based on Arthrospira platensis Protein Concentrate and Sodium Alginate

The food industry is constantly reformulating different foods to fulfill the demands of the consumers (natural ingredients and good sensory quality). The present work aimed to produce low-fat mayonnaises using 30.0, 22.5, and 15.0% oil, 1% soy protein isolate (SPI) or spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) protein concentrate (SPC), and 2% sodium alginate. The physical properties (thermal stability, rheological behavior, and particle size), the sensory attributes (appearance, texture, taste, and acceptability), the purchase probability, and amino acid availability (after a simulated digestion) were evaluated. The mayonnaises demonstrated good thermal stability (>90%) using 22.5 and 15% oil, all products showed shear-thinning behavior and a consistency index of 20–66 Pa·s. The reduction of oil from 30 to 15% increased the particle size from 6–9 µm to 10–38 µm. The most acceptable product was the formulated with SPI and 22.5% oil (8.3 of acceptability and 79% of purchase probability). Finally, the addition of proteins improved the total essential amino acids compared to a commercial product (28 and 5 mg/25 g, respectively). In summary, it was possible to obtain well accepted products with high purchase probability using low concentrations of oil and vegetable proteins.