Quercetagetin loaded in soy protein isolate–κ-carrageenan complex: Fabrication mechanism and protective effect

Characterization of structural and functional properties of soybean 11S globulin during renaturation after denaturation induced by changes in pH

BACKGROUND

This study explored the denaturation of 11S globulin, a protein known for its diverse functional properties in soy protein applications, at pH 3.0 and pH 10.0, followed by a gradual return to pH 7.0 to facilitate renaturation. It investigated the structural and functional changes during renaturation induced by a change in pH, revealing the stabilization mechanism of 11S globulin.

RESULTS

The findings revealed that during pH adjustment to neutral, the denatured soybean 11S globulin - resulting from alkaline (pH 10.0) or acidic (pH 3.0) treatments - experienced a refolding of its extended tertiary structure to varying extents. The particle size and the proportions of α-helix and β-sheet in the secondary structure aligned progressively with those of the natural-state protein. However, for the alkali-denatured 11S, the β-sheet content decreased upon adjustment to neutral, whereas an increase was observed for the acid-denatured 11S. In terms of functional properties, after alkaline denaturation, the foaming capacity (FC) and emulsifying activity index (EAI) of 11S increased by 1.4 and 1.2 times, respectively, in comparison with its native state. The solubility, foamability, and emulsifiability of the alkali-denatured 11S gradually diminished during renaturation but remained superior to those of the native state. Conversely, these properties showed an initial decline, followed by an increase during renaturation triggered by pH neutralization.

CONCLUSIONS

This research contributes to the enhancement of protein functionality, offering a theoretical foundation for the development of functional soy protein products and expanding their potential applications. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Physicochemical Properties, Stability, and Functionality of Non-Covalent Ternary Complexes Fabricated with Pea Protein, Hyaluronic Acid and Chlorogenic Acid

The aim of this study was to prepare and characterize stable non-covalent ternary complexes based on pea protein (PP, 0.5%), hyaluronic acid (HA, 0.125%), and chlorogenic acid (CA, 0~0.03%). The ternary complexes were comprehensively evaluated for physicochemical attributes, stability, emulsifying capacities, antioxidant properties, and antimicrobial efficacy. PP-HA binary complexes were first prepared at pH 7, and then CA was bound to the binary complexes, as verified by fluorescence quenching. Molecular docking elucidated that PP interacted with HA and CA through hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. The particle size of ternary complexes initially decreased, then increased with CA concentration, peaking at 0.025%. Ternary complexes demonstrated good stability against UV light and thermal treatment. Emulsifying activity of complexes initially decreased and then increased, with a turning point of 0.025%, while emulsion stability continued to increase. Complexes exhibited potent scavenging ability against free radicals and iron ions, intensifying with higher CA concentrations. Ternary complexes effectively inhibited Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, with inhibition up to 0.025%, then decreasing with CA concentration. Our study indicated that the prepared ternary complexes at pH 7 were stable and possessed good functionality, including emulsifying properties, antioxidant activity, and antibacterial properties under certain concentrations of CA. These findings may provide valuable insights for the targeted design and application of protein-polysaccharide-polyphenol complexes in beverages and dairy products.

Construction of protein-, polysaccharide- and polyphenol-based conjugates as delivery systems

Natural polymers, such as polysaccharides and proteins, have been used to prepare several delivery systems owing to their abundance, bioactivity, and biodegradability. They are usually modified or combined with small molecules to form the delivery systems needed to meet different needs in food systems. This paper reviews the interactions of proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols in the bulk phase and discusses the design strategies, coupling techniques, and their applications as conjugates in emulsion delivery systems, including traditional, Pickering, multilayer, and high internal-phase emulsions. Furthermore, it explores the prospects of the application of conjugates in food preservation, food development, and nanocarrier development. Currently, there are seven methods for composite delivery systems including the Maillard reaction, carbodiimide cross-linking, alkali treatment, enzymatic cross-linking, free radical induction, genipin cross-linking, and Schiff base chemical cross-linking to prepare binary and ternary conjugates of proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols. To design an effective target complex and its delivery system, it is helpful to understand the physicochemical properties of these biomolecules and their interactions in the bulk phase. This review summarizes the knowledge on the interaction of biological complexes in the bulk phase, preparation methods, and the preparation of stable emulsion delivery system.

Multivariable analysis of egg white protein-chitosan interaction: Influence of pH, temperature, biopolymers ratio, and ionic concentration

The influence of pH, temperature, biopolymer ratio, total concentration, and ionic concentration on the interaction between egg white protein (EWP) and chitosan (CS) was investigated through turbidity, zeta potential, and state diagram in our research. In addition, phase behavior was observed under various conditions. The turbidity of EWP remained low (turbidity < 0.03) and basically unchanged at a wide range of pH (4.0-8.0), while the turbidity of CS was slightly higher (turbidity < 0.2) after pH 7.0 than before. Moreover, under the same conditions, a sharply rising peak pattern was observed for the complex between EWP and CS. The maximum turbidity value was observed at 55 °C, and the temperature had a mild effect on turbidity. The optimum EWP to CS ratio was found to be 12:1 based on the turbidity curves and state diagrams influenced by different biopolymer mixing ratios. With the enhanced concentrations of total biopolymer, the maximum turbidity rose insignificantly above 0.1%.

Fabrication and characterization of gelatin-EGCG-pectin ternary complex: formation mechanism, emulsion stability, and structure

BACKGROUND

Protein-polyphenol-polysaccharide ternary complex particles have better emulsion interfacial stability compared to protein-polysaccharide binary complexes. However, knowledge is scarce when it comes to the fabrication of protein-polyphenol-polysaccharide ternary complexes as interfacial stabilizers and the interactions between the three substances. In the present work, ternary complexes were prepared using gelatin, high methoxyl pectin, and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) as raw materials. The effect of different influencing factors on the formation process of ternary complexes was investigated by varying different parameters. physicochemical stability, emulsifying properties, and structural characteristics were analyzed.

RESULTS

The ternary complex had a smaller particle size (275 nm) and polydispersity index (0.112) when the mass concentration ratio of gelatin to high methoxyl pectin was 9:1, addition of EGCG was 0.05%, pH value was 3.0, and ionic strength was 10 mmol L^-1 . Meanwhile, the complex had the highest emulsifying stability index (691.75 min) and emulsifying activity index (22.96 m²  g^-1 ). Scanning electron microscopical observation demonstrated that the addition of EGCG promoted the dispersion of ternary complex more uniformly, and effectively reduced the agglomeration phenomenon. The discrepancy in fluorescence intensity suggested that interactions between EGCG and gelatin occurred, which altered the protein spatial conformation of gelatin. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic analysis elucidated that hydrogen bond interaction was the primary non-covalent interaction between EGCG and gelatin-high methoxyl pectin binary complex.

CONCLUSION

The aforementioned results purposed to provide some theoretical reference and basis for the rational design of stable protein-polyphenol-polysaccharide ternary complexes. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Improving effect of oleic acid-mediated sodium caseinate-based encapsulation in an ultrasound field on the thermal stability and bioaccessibility of quercetin

The simultaneous improvement of quercetin (QUE) processing stability and bioavailability has always presented a technical challenge during food processing. This study constructed a water-soluble carrier consisting of oleic acid (OA) and sodium caseinate (NaCas) in an ultrasonic field and investigated the effect of its encapsulation on improving the thermal stability and bioaccessibility of QUE. The results showed that the OA and NaCas generated uniform, stable water-soluble particles with a poly dispersity index (PDI) below 0.3 and an absolute value of Zeta potential above 30 mV in optimized conditions (a protein concentration of 4 mg/mL, ultrasonic power of 300 W, and ultrasonic time of 5 min). OA-NaCas mass ratio of 1:40, 1:15, 1:8, and 1:4 was selected for QUE loading to compare its encapsulation effect at different mass ratios. Compared with the NaCas without OA, the QUE embedding rate reached 95 % at OA-NaCas mass ratios of 1:15 and 1:8. In addition, the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images confirmed that QUE was embedded in OA-NaCas particles, forming regular, spherical OA-NaCas-QUE particles at mass ratios or 1:15 and 1:8. Next, when heated at 80 °C for 120 min, the OA-NaCas (OA:NaCas, 1:15, 1:8, and W/W) particles significantly improved the QUE retention rate. The simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion experiments showed that the QUE bioaccessibility increased from 25 % to more than 60 % when it was encapsulated in OA-NaCas (OA:NaCas, 1:15, 1:8, and W/W) particles. These results indicated that the OA-NaCas complex was suitable as a hydrophilic delivery carrier of fat-soluble polyphenols.

Delivery of hyperoside by using a soybean protein isolated-soy soluble polysaccharide nanocomplex: Fabrication, characterization, and in vitro release properties

Nanoparticles made from natural proteins and polysaccharides are green, biodegradable, and sustainable. In this study, soybean protein isolate (SPI) and soybean soluble polysaccharide (SSPS) were employed as delivery vehicles for hyperoside (HYP) to explore the mechanism of the formation of complexes and evaluate the performance of this mechanism at different pH values. The structures of SPI-SSPS-HYP complexes were studied by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), and the stability was evaluated based on free radical scavenging ability, loading rate, and simulated release. The results showed that nanoparticles were subjected to non-covalent electrostatic complexation, which was affected mainly by electrostatic, hydrogen bond, and hydrophobic interactions, and the optimal encapsulation efficiency was 85.56% at pH 3.5. Encapsulated HYP retained its high antioxidant capacity. This study provides a new strategy for developing a biodegradable nanocarrier with superior encapsulation properties, enhancing the application range of HYP.

Nano-enabled plant-based colloidal delivery systems for bioactive agents in foods: Design, formulation, and application

Consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the impact of their dietary choices on the environment, animal welfare, and health, which is causing many of them to adopt more plant-based diets. For this reason, many sectors of the food industry are reformulating their products to contain more plant-based ingredients. This article describes recent research on the formation and application of nano-enabled colloidal delivery systems formulated from plant-based ingredients, such as polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and phospholipids. These delivery systems include nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoliposomes, nanophytosomes, and biopolymer nanoparticles. The composition, size, structure, and charge of the particles in these delivery systems can be manipulated to create novel or improved functionalities, such as improved robustness, higher optical clarity, controlled release, and increased bioavailability. There have been major advances in the design, assembly, and application of plant-based edible nanoparticles within the food industry over the past decade or so. As a result, there are now a wide range of different options available for creating delivery systems for specific applications. In the future, it will be important to establish whether these formulations can be produced using economically viable methods and provide the desired functionality in real-life applications.

Establishment and Characterization of Stable Zein/Glycosylated Lactoferrin Nanoparticles to Enhance the Storage Stability and in vitro Bioaccessibility of 7,8-Dihydroxyflavone

In this work, the lactoferrin (LF) was glycosylated by dextran (molecular weight 10, 40, and 70 kDa, LF 10K, LF 40K, and LF 70K) via Maillard reaction as a stabilizer to establish zein/glycosylated LF nanoparticles and encapsulate 7,8-dihydroxyflavone (7,8-DHF). Three zein/glycosylated LF nanoparticles (79.27–87.24 nm) with low turbidity (<0.220) and polydispersity index (PDI) (<0.230) were successfully established by hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding. Compared with zein/LF nanoparticles, zein/glycosylated LF nanoparticles further increased stability to ionic strength (0–500 mM NaCl) at low pH conditions. Zein/glycosylated LF nanoparticles had nanoscale spherical shape and glycosylated LF changed surface morphology of zein nanoparticles. Besides, encapsulated 7,8-DHF exhibited an amorphous state inside zein/glycosylated LF nanoparticles. Most importantly, zein/glycosylated LF nanoparticles had good water redispersibility, high encapsulation efficiency (above 98.50%), favorable storage stability, and bioaccessibility for 7,8-DHF, particularly LF 40K. Collectively, the above research provides a theoretical reference for the application of zein-based delivery systems.

Enhancing the stability of zein/fucoidan composite nanoparticles with calcium ions for quercetin delivery

In this study, zein and fucoidan-based composite nanoparticles were prepared by the antisolvent precipitation method. The effects of different calcium ion (Ca²⁺, 0-3.0 mM) concentrations on the stability of the composite nanosystems loaded with quercetin were studied under different conditions (pH, temperature, salt concentration, and ultraviolet light irradiation), and the composite nanoparticles were characterized. Electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions are the main forces underlying the formation of composite nanoparticles. The addition of Ca²⁺ led to improved release of the active substances from the composite nanoparticles in simulated digestive solutions (especially when the Ca²⁺ concentration was 1.5 mM). The composite nanosystems based on alcohol-soluble proteins and anionic polysaccharides with added Ca²⁺ can be potentially applied for the delivery of active substances.

Development, Characterization, Stability and Bioaccessibility Improvement of 7,8-Dihydroxyflavone Loaded Zein/Sophorolipid/Polysaccharide Ternary Nanoparticles: Comparison of Sodium Alginate and Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose

In this study, two polysaccharides [sodium alginate (ALG) and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)] were selected to establish zein/sophorolipid/ALG (ALG/S/Z) and zein/sophorolipid/ALG (CMC/S/Z) nanoparticles to encapsulate 7,8-dihydroxyflavone (7,8-DHF), respectively. The results showed that polysaccharide types significantly affected performance of ternary nanoparticles, including CMC/S/Z possessed lower polydispersity index, particle size and turbidity, but higher zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity compared to ALG/S/Z. Compared to zein/sophorolipid nanoparticles (S/Z), both ALG/S/Z and CMC/S/Z had better stability against low pH (pH 3~4) and high ionic strengths (150~200 mM NaCl). Hydrophobic effects, electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding were confirmed in ternary nanoparticles fabrication via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Circular dichroism revealed that CMC and ALG had no evident impact on secondary structure of zein in S/Z, but changed surface morphology of S/Z as observed by scanning electron microscope. Encapsulated 7,8-DHF exhibited an amorphous state in ternary nanoparticles as detected by X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry. Furthermore, compared to S/Z, ALG/S/Z, and CMC/S/Z remarkably improved the storage stability and bioaccessibility of 7,8-DHF. CMC/S/Z possessed a greater storage stability for 7,8-DHF, however, ALG/S/Z exhibited a better in vitro bioaccessibility of 7,8-DHF. This research provides a theoretical reference for zein-based delivery system application.

Tracking aggregation behaviour and gel properties induced by structural alterations in myofibrillar protein in mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio) under the synergistic effects of pH and heating

The synergistic effect of pH and heating on the structure, aggregation behaviour and gel properties of myofibrillar protein (MP) in mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio) was evaluated. The surface hydrophobicity of the control at pH 5.0 (143.6 ± 0.3 μg) was significantly higher than that of other samples (P < 0.05). Under the same pH conditions, the decrease in total sulfhydryl content of all samples during the heating process demonstrated that covalent/non-covalent cross-linking occurred between proteins due to heat input. Moreover, the decrease in solubility and the increase in turbidity of all samples verified the fact of MP aggregation, and the changes in the elasticity index (EI) and macroscopic viscosity index (MVI) also indicated a decrease in MP fluidity upon heating treatment. Therefore, the aggregation of MP was affected by pH and heating, and the optimal three-dimensional network structure and gel properties could be formed at pH 6.0 and above 70 °C.

Synergistic gelation in the hybrid gel of scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis) male gonad hydrolysates and xanthan gum

This study evaluated the gel and microstructure properties of scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis) male gonads hydrolysates (SMGHs) combined with xanthan gum (XG). SMGHs/XG hydrogel matrix properties and structures were elucidated via different analysis tools such as rheometry, LF-NMR, FTIR, AFM, and Cryo-SEM. The addition of XG significantly improved the rheological properties of SMGHs, as indicated by 3.1-fold G' and 1.3-fold melting temperature with increasing the XG dose to 5.6 mg/ml. The corresponding decrease in the T₂₃ relaxation time from 450.3 to 365.6 ms also signified the strong binding between SMGHs and XG. SMGHs/XG also had a higher proton density (T₁ and T₂ weighted images) due to the higher bound and free water content of the hybrid gel systems, respectively. Additionally, the blueshift in the amide I and II bands in SMGHs/XG further indicated stronger electrostatic interactions between SMGHs and XG. Such scenarios resulted in a well-distributed and compact network with a rougher surface of SMGHs/XG in comparison to pure SMGHs and XG, as assessed by AFM and SEM. These results suggest that SMGHs/XG gel could be a potential hybrid gel applied in the food industry. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis) male gonads are edible, but are usually discarded during processing of scallop adductor. Because of its rich nutrition and gelation properties, scallop male gonads have a potential role in developing marine source-protein as a functional food base. The SMGHs/XG binary gel would be potentially applied in delivery system in food and biological fields. Further study is undergoing to apply SMGHs/XG binary gel to embed bioactive compounds, such as curcumin and β-carotene.

Amphiphilic mPEG-Modified Oligo-Phenylalanine Nanoparticles Chemoenzymatically Synthesized via Papain

Amphiphilic mPEG-modified peptide nanoparticles were developed from oligo-phenylalanine (OPhe) nanoparticles (NPs) synthesized via papain. Tyndall effects indicate that OPhe NPs are amphiphobic. Addition of protein perturbants, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and urea, in the dispersion solution of OPhe NPs can significantly reduce the R _h,m value of NPs, from approximately 749.2 nm to about 200 nm. Therefore, the hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bonding play major roles in maintaining the aggregation of OPhe NPs. Using the "grafting to" method, the methoxypolyethylene-modified OPhe NPs (mPEG-g-OPhe NPs) were synthesized and characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), ¹H NMR, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The attenuated total reflectance (ATR) spectrum of OPhe NPs and mPEG-g-OPhe NPs demonstrate that the secondary structures of these NPs are mainly β-type. mPEG-g-OPhe NPs can self-aggregate into spherical micelles both in water and cyclohexane. Increasing the chain length of the mPEG moiety, the critical micellar concentrations of mPEG-g-OPhe NPs increased in water but decreased in cyclohexane. The light stability, thermal stability, hydrolysis stability, and encapsulation stability of curcumin were significantly promoted by encapsulation in the micelles formed by mPEG-g-OPhe NPs. The protective effects regularly varied with the variations in the mPEG chain length of mPEG-g-OPhe NPs.

Fabrication, structural characterization and functional attributes of polysaccharide-surfactant-protein ternary complexes for delivery of curcumin

In this study, the nanocomplexes as a novel delivery system for curcumin, were successfully fabricated using high methoxyl pectin (HMP), individual surfactants (rhamnolipid (Rha), tea saponin (TS) and ethyl lauroyl arginate hydrochloride (ELA)) and pea protein isolate (PPI). The optimum mass ratio between PPI and curcumin was 40:1. The HMP-Rha-PPI-Cur, HMP-TS-PPI-Cur and HMP-ELA-PPI-Cur complexes which had particle sizes of 453, 422 and 587 nm, exhibited encapsulation efficiencies of curcumin with 93.46, 92.05 and 86.73%, respectively. The analysis of FTIR revealed that HMP-surfactant-PPI-Cur complexes were formed mainly by hydrogen bonding and electrostatic attraction. XRD result showed that curcumin exhibited a non-crystallized state in the ternary complexes. Moreover, the curcumin within the HMP-Rha-PPI ternary complexes showed better stability under UV-light, thermal and simulated gastrointestinal conditions.

Effect of pH and mixing ratio on interpolymer complexation of scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis) male gonad hydrolysates and κ-carrageenan

The electrostatic complex coacervation between scallop Patinopecten. yessoensis male gonad hydrolysates (SMGHs) and κ-carrageenan (κ-C) were monitored by using turbidimetry at various pH (1-12) and biopolymer mixing ratio (9:1-1:9). The pH_c exhibited ratio-independent behavior, and pH_φ1, pH_max exhibited ratio-dependent behavior, respectively. The decreasing ratio enhanced the gel strength of SMGHs/κ-C at higher pH while inversely at lower pH, ascribing to more SMGHs aggregates and stronger neutralization between positively charged patches in SMGHs and κ-C at lower pH and higher ratio. Moreover, SMGHs/κ-C gel at acid condition exhibited lower relaxation times (T₂₁ and T₂₃). Furthermore, the rheological and relaxation time T₂ data were well associated with microscopy images which indicated that SMGHs/κ-C gel showed a well-distributed network structure at more acidic domains, supporting stronger gel rigidity and water-holding capacity.

The Rheolaser Master™ and Kinexus Rotational Rheometer® to Evaluate the Influence of Topical Drug Delivery Systems on Rheological Features of Topical Poloxamer Gel

Poloxamer 407 copolymer is a versatile and widely used thermo-reversible material. Its use has many advantages, such as bio-adhesion, enhanced solubilization of poorly water-soluble drugs and many applications fields like oral, rectal, topical, nasal drug administration. Hydrogels made up of Poloxamer 407 are characterized by specific rheological features, which are affected by temperature, concentration and presence of other compounds. A strategic approach in topical therapeutic treatments may be the inclusion of drug delivery systems, such as ethosomes, transfersomes and niosomes, into hydrogel poloxamer formulation. The evaluation of the interaction between colloidal carriers and the Poloxamer 407 hydrogel network is essential for a suitable design of an innovative topical dosage form. For this reason, the Rheolaser Master™, based on diffusing wave spectroscopy, and a Kinexus Rotational Rheometer were used to evaluate the influence of nanocarriers on the microrheological features of hydrogels. The advantages of the Rheolaser Master™ analyzer are: (i) its ability to determine viscoelastic parameter, without altering or destroying the sample and at rest (zero shear); (ii) possibility of aging analysis on the same sample. This study provide evidence that vesicular systems do not influence the rheological features of the gel, supporting the possibility to encapsulate an innovative system into a three-dimensional network.

Molecular Functionality of Plant Proteins from Low- to High-Solid Systems with Ligand and Co-Solute

In the food industry, proteins are regarded as multifunctional systems whose bioactive hetero-polymeric properties are affected by physicochemical interactions with the surrounding components in formulations. Due to their nutritional value, plant proteins are increasingly considered by the new product developer to provide three-dimensional assemblies of required structure, texture, solubility and interfacial/bulk stability with physical, chemical or enzymatic treatment. This molecular flexibility allows them to form systems for the preservation of fresh food, retention of good nutrition and interaction with a range of microconstituents. While, animal- and milk-based proteins have been widely discussed in the literature, the role of plant proteins in the development of functional foods with enhanced nutritional profile and targeted physiological effects can be further explored. This review aims to look into the molecular functionality of plant proteins in relation to the transport of bioactive ingredients and interaction with other ligands and proteins. In doing so, it will consider preparations from low- to high-solids and the effect of structural transformation via gelation, phase separation and vitrification on protein functionality as a delivery vehicle or heterologous complex. Applications for the design of novel functional foods and nutraceuticals will also be discussed.

Structures, fabrication mechanisms, and emulsifying properties of self-assembled and spray-dried ternary complexes based on lactoferrin, oat β-glucan and curcumin: A comparison study

Protein-polyphenol-polysaccharide non-covalent ternary complexes possess many unique structural and functional properties. However, rare work is available to fabricate the neutral polysaccharide-based ternary complexes. Herein, the ternary complexes composed of lactoferrin (LF), oat β-glucan (OG), and curcumin (Cur) with three binding sequences were successfully developed through self-assembly technique and spray drying technique, respectively. Spray drying could enhance the extent of the intermolecular associations among LF, OG, and Cur, leading to the formation of ternary complexes with smaller particle sizes and lower turbidities. Cur can be loaded in LF-OG complexes to form an amorphous complex through the intermolecular interactions (mainly hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding). The ternary complexes can be used as potential emulsifiers to stabilize oil-in-water Pickering emulsions. The emulsifying capacity (to enhance physical stability) of the complexes was in the order as follows: the spray-dried ternary complexes > the spray-dried LF-OG complexes > the self-assembled ternary complexes > the self-assembled LF-OG complexes. The structural and functional properties (e.g., emulsifying property) of OG-based ternary complexes can be controlled by adjusting the binding sequences. These results will broaden our current understanding of protein-polyphenol-polysaccharide ternary complexes and provide more applications of OG in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries.

Delivery of synergistic polyphenol combinations using biopolymer-based systems: Advances in physicochemical properties, stability and bioavailability

When consumed at sufficiently high levels, polyphenols may provide health benefits, which is linked to their antidiabetic, antiinflamatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, and hypolipidemic properties. Moreover, certain polyphenol combinations exhibit synergistic effects when delivered together - the combined polyphenols have a higher biological activity than the sum of the individual ones. However, the commercial application of polyphenols as nutraceuticals is currently limited because of their poor solubility characteristics; instability when exposed to light, heat, and alkaline conditions; and, low and inconsistent oral bioavailability. Colloidal delivery systems are being developed to overcome these challenges. In this article, we review the design, fabrication, and utilization of food-grade biopolymer-based delivery systems for the encapsulation of one or more polyphenols. In particular, we focus on the creation of delivery systems constructed from edible proteins and polysaccharides. The optimization of biopolymer-based delivery systems may lead to the development of innovative polyphenol-enriched functional foods that can improve human health and wellbeing.

Fabrication and Characterization of Layer-by-Layer Composite Nanoparticles Based on Zein and Hyaluronic Acid for Codelivery of Curcumin and Quercetagetin

The utilization of layer-by-layer composite nanoparticles fabricated from zein and hyaluronic acid (HA) for the codelivery of curcumin and quercetagetin was investigated. A combination of hydrophobic effects and hydrogen bonding was responsible for the interaction of zein with both curcumin and quercetagetin inside the nanoparticles. Electrostatic attraction and hydrogen bonding were mainly responsible for the layer-by-layer deposition of hyaluronic acid on the surfaces of the nanoparticles. The secondary structure of zein was altered by the presence of the two nutraceuticals and HA. The optimized nanoparticle formulation contained relatively small particles ( d = 231.2 nm) that were anionic (ζ = -30.5 mV). The entrapment efficiency and loading capacity were 69.8 and 2.5% for curcumin and 90.3 and 3.5% for quercetagetin, respectively. Interestingly, the morphology of the nanoparticles depended on their composition. In particular, they changed from coated nanoparticles to nanoparticle-filled microgels as the level of HA increased. The nanoparticles were effective at reducing light and thermal degradation of the two encapsulated nutraceuticals and remained physically stable throughout 6 months of long-term storage. In addition, the nanoparticles were shown to slowly release the nutraceuticals under simulated gastrointestinal tract conditions, which may help improve their oral bioavailability. In summary, we have shown that layer-by-layer composite nanoparticles based on zein and HA are an effective codelivery system for two bioactive compounds.

Zein-hyaluronic acid binary complex as a delivery vehicle of quercetagetin: Fabrication, structural characterization, physicochemical stability and in vitro release property

The antisolvent coprecipitation method was utilized for fabricating the zein and hyaluronic acid complex at different mass ratios (100:5, 100:10, 100:15, 100:20, 100:25 and 100:30). Results showed that negatively charged zein-hyaluronic acid complex with small size (181.5 nm) was formed through the driving force of electrostatic attraction, followed by hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic effects. The incorporation of hyaluronic acid led to conformational change of zein, and improved its physical and thermal stability. Native hyaluronic acid showed a three-dimensional network structure, while zein-hyaluronic acid binary complex exhibited two different microstructures, including nanoparticles (zein: hyaluronic acid, above 100:20) and particle-filled-microgel (zein: hyaluronic acid, below 100:20). In addition, zein-hyaluronic acid complex was designed as a new delivery vehicle to anti- thermal degradation and control release of quercetagetin. These findings indicated that zein-hyaluronic acid complex would be a useful and promising delivery vehicle for embedding and protecting bioactive compounds.

Protein-polysaccharide nanohybrids: Hybridization techniques and drug delivery applications

Complex nanosystems fabricated by hybridization of different types of materials such as lipids, proteins, or polysaccharides are usually superior to simple ones in terms of features and applications. Proteins and polysaccharides hold great potential for development of nanocarriers for drug delivery purposes based on their unique biocompatibility, biodegradability, ease of functionalization, improved biodistribution and minimal toxicity profiles. Protein-polysaccharide nanohybrids have gained a lot of attention in the past few years particularly for drug delivery applications. In this review, different hybridization techniques utilized in the fabrication of such nanohybrids including electrostatic complexation, Maillard conjugation, chemical coupling and electrospinning were thoroughly reviewed. Moreover, various formulation factors affecting the characteristics of the formed nanohybrids were discussed. We also reviewed in depth the outcomes of such hybridization ranging from stability enhancement, to toxicity reduction, improved biocompatibility, and drug release modulation. We also gave an insight on their limitations and what hinders their clinical translation and market introduction.

Effect of molecular weight of hyaluronan on zein-based nanoparticles: Fabrication, structural characterization and delivery of curcumin

Zein and hyaluronan with different molecular weights (hyaluronic acid, HA and sodium hyaluronate, SHA: 100, 1000, and 2000 kDa) were used to fabricate the zein-hyaluronan (ZH) nanoparticles by the antisolvent coprecipitation method. With increasing molecular weight of hyaluronan, the particle size, zeta-potential, and turbidity were gradually increased. Zeta-potential and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) results indicated that electrostatic attraction was the dominant driving force, followed by hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic effects. Circular dichroism and fluorescence spectroscopy results revealed that the secondary structure was changed in zein after its combination with hyaluronan. The uniform spherical zein-HA (100 kDa) nanoparticles (size, 186.4 nm) was designed as a new delivery vehicle for curcumin with the high encapsulation efficiency (95.03%) and loading capacity (3.66%), and curcumin exhibited a better stability of anti- light degradation, and control release in simulate gastrointestinal digestion. This work would have a contribution to the development of novel delivery systems.

Quercetagetin-Loaded Composite Nanoparticles Based on Zein and Hyaluronic Acid: Formation, Characterization, and Physicochemical Stability

Zein and hyaluronic acid (HA) composite nanoparticles were self-assembly fabricated using antisolvent coprecipitation (ASCP) method to deliver quercetagetin (Que). FTIR, CD, and FS results revealed that electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic effect were the dominant driving forces among zein, Que, and HA. With the increasing of HA level, the morphological structure of zein-Que-HA complex was changed from nanoparticle (from 100:5:5 to 100:5:20) to microgel (from 100:5:25 to 100:5:30). The encapsulation efficiency of Que has significantly increased from 55.66% (zein-Que, 100:5) to 93.22% (zein-Que-HA, 100:5:20), and Que in the zein-Que-HA composite nanoparticles exhibited obviously enhanced photochemical, thermal, and physical stability. After 8 months of storage (4 °C), the retention rate of Que also up to 77.93%. These findings interpreted that zein-HA composite nanoparticle would be an efficient delivery system for encapsulating and protecting bioactive compounds.