Fate of Fusarium mycotoxins during processing of Nigerian traditional infant foods (ogi and soybean powder)

Influence of traditional dehulling on mycotoxin reduction and GC-HRTOF-MS metabolites profile of fermented maize products

Contamination with mycotoxins has been a worldwide food safety concern for several decades, and food processing has been suggested as a potential method to mitigate their presence. In this study, the influence of traditional dehulling (TD) on the mycotoxin reduction and metabolites profile of fermented white maize products obtained via natural and three controlled fermentation methods (involving Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus plantarum, and their mixed cultures) was examined. Gas chromatography coupled with high resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-HRTOF-MS) and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) were employed. TD brought the levels of fumonisin B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2) in the white maize below the regulatory limit set by the European Union (EU) for maize consumed by humans. While TD increased the concentration of several mycotoxins in the fermented maize products obtained from other studied fermentation methods, it primarily reduced aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), FB1, deoxynivalenol, and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol in the L. plantarum-fermented products. By tempering the dehulled maize, a solid-state fermentation process began. This was used in TD to make it easier to remove the pericarp. GC-HR-TOF-MS metabolomics revealed that TD brought about the generation of 12 additional compounds in the dehulled maize though some metabolites in the whole maize were lost/biotransformed. The fermented dehulled maize products obtained from the four studied fermentation procedures contained fewer compounds than the fermented whole maize products. Overall, the analysis showed that all fermented maize (whole and dehulled) produced had varied nutritional metabolites and mycotoxin concentrations below the EU maximum level, except for fermented maize obtained from mixed strains (AFB1 + AFB2 > 4.0 g/kg).

Mycotoxins in soybean-based foods fermented with filamentous fungi: Occurrence and preventive strategies

Fermented soybean products are widely consumed worldwide, and their popularity is increasing. Filamentous fungi, such as Actinomucor, Aspergillus, Monascus, Mucor, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and Zymomonas, play critical roles in the fermentation processes of many soybean foods. However, besides producing essential enzymes for food fermentation, filamentous fungi can release undesirable or even toxic metabolites into the food. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain filamentous fungi and may be detected during the food production process. Without effective prevention strategies, mycotoxin contamination in fermented soybean products poses a risk to human health. This review focused on the changes in mycotoxigenic fungal abundance and mycotoxin contamination at different stages during the production of soybean-based fermented foods, as well as effective strategies for preventing mycotoxin contamination in such products. Data from relevant studies demonstrated a tendency of change in the genera of mycotoxigenic fungi and types of mycotoxins (aflatoxins, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, rhizoxins, T-2 toxin, and zearalenone) present in the raw materials and the middle and final products. The applicability of traditional chemical and physical mitigation strategies and novel eco-friendly biocontrol approaches to prevent mycotoxin contamination in soybean-based fermented foods were discussed. The present review highlights the risks of mycotoxin contamination during the production of fermented soybean products and recommends promising strategies for eliminating mycotoxin contamination risk in soybean-based fermented foods.

Current Review of Mycotoxin Biodegradation and Bioadsorption: Microorganisms, Mechanisms, and Main Important Applications

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi. Food/feed contamination by mycotoxins is a great threat to food safety. The contamination can occur along the food chain and can cause many diseases in humans and animals, and it also can cause economic losses. Many detoxification methods, including physical, chemical, and biological techniques, have been established to eliminate mycotoxins in food/feed. The biological method, with mycotoxin detoxification by microorganisms, is reliable, efficient, less costly, and easy to use compared with physical and chemical ones. However, it is important to discover the metabolite's toxicity resulting from mycotoxin biodegradation. These compounds can be less or more toxic than the parent. On the other hand, mechanisms involved in a mycotoxin's biological control remain still unclear. Mostly, there is little information about the method used by microorganisms to control mycotoxins. Therefore, this article presents an overview of the most toxic mycotoxins and the different microorganisms that have a mycotoxin detoxification ability. At the same time, different screening methods for degradation compound elucidation are given. In addition, the review summarizes mechanisms of mycotoxin biodegradation and gives some applications.

Zearalenone and Its Masked Forms in Cereals and Cereal-Derived Products: A Review of the Characteristics, Incidence, and Fate in Food Processing

Zearalenone (ZEA) is known as a Fusarium-produced mycotoxin, representing a risk to cereal food safety with repercussions for economies and worldwide trade. Recent studies have reported the co-occurrence of ZEA and masked ZEA in a variety of cereals and cereal-based products, which may exert adverse effects on public health due to additive/synergistic interactions. However, the co-contamination of ZEA and masked ZEA has received little attention. In order to minimize the threats of co-contamination by ZEA and masked ZEA, it is necessary to recognize the occurrence and formation of ZEA and masked ZEA. This review focuses on the characteristics, incidence, and detection of ZEA and its masked forms. Additionally, the fate of ZEA and masked ZEA during the processing of bread, cake, biscuits, pasta, and beer, as well as the ZEA limit, are discussed. The incidence of masked ZEA is lower than that of ZEA, and the mean level of masked ZEA varies greatly between cereal samples. Published data showed a considerable degree of heterogeneity in the destiny of ZEA during cereal-based food processing, mostly as a result of the varying contamination levels and complicated food processing methods. Knowledge of the fate of ZEA and masked ZEA throughout cereal-based food processing may reduce the likelihood of severe detrimental market and trade ramifications. The revision of legislative limits of masked ZEA may become a challenge in the future.

Development of a reliable UHPLC-MS/MS method for simultaneous determination of zearalenone and zearalenone-14-glucoside in various feed products

A reliable ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method (UHPLC-MS/MS) was developed for the simultaneous determination of two mycotoxins, that is, zearalenone (ZEN) and zearalenone-14-glucoside (ZEN-14G) in formula feed, concentrated feed, and premixed feed products. An improved sample pretreatment was achieved with the hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) cartridges efficiently removing the impurities and enriching the target analytes in different feeds. The critical parameters affecting the performance of the solid-phase extraction (SPE) procedure were carefully optimized, and 20% acetonitrile in water as the loading solution, 50% methanol in water as the washing solvent, and 5 ml of methanol as the elution solvent yielded the optimal purification efficiencies. The established method was thoroughly validated in terms of linearity (R² ≥ 0.999), sensitivity (limit of quantification in the range of 0.50–5.00 μg kg⁻¹), recovery (89.35 ± 2.67% to 110.93 ± 1.56%), and precision (RSD, 3.00–14.20%), and it was then successfully applied to investigate a total of 60 feed samples. Among them, 50 samples were found to be contaminated with ZEN (an incidence of 83.3%) at levels ranging from 0.63 to 615.24 μg kg⁻¹, whereas 22 samples were contaminated with ZEN-14G (an incidence of 36.7%) in the range of 0.89–15.31 μg kg⁻¹. The developed method proved to be a specific and reliable tool for intensive monitoring of ZEN and ZEN-14G in complex feed matrices.

Mycotoxin Regulatory Status in Africa: A Decade of Weak Institutional Efforts

Food safety problems are a major hindrance to achieving food security, trade, and healthy living in Africa. Fungi and their secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins, represent an important concern in this regard. Attempts such as agricultural, storage, and processing practices, and creation of awareness to tackle the menace of fungi and mycotoxins have yielded measurable outcomes especially in developed countries, where there are comprehensive mycotoxin legislations and enforcement schemes. Conversely, most African countries do not have mycotoxin regulatory limits and even when available, are only applied for international trade. Factors such as food insecurity, public ignorance, climate change, poor infrastructure, poor research funding, incorrect prioritization of resources, and nonchalant attitudes that exist among governmental organisations and other stakeholders further complicate the situation. In the present review, we discuss the status of mycotoxin regulation in Africa, with emphasis on the impact of weak mycotoxin legislations and enforcement on African trade, agriculture, and health. Furthermore, we discuss the factors limiting the establishment and control of mycotoxins in the region.

Six Main Contributing Factors to High Levels of Mycotoxin Contamination in African Foods

Africa is one of the regions with high mycotoxin contamination of foods and continues to record high incidences of liver cancers globally. The agricultural sector of most African countries depends largely on climate variables for crop production. Production of mycotoxins is climate-sensitive. Most stakeholders in the food production chain in Africa are not aware of the health and economic effects of consuming contaminated foods. The aim of this review is to evaluate the main factors and their degree of contribution to the high levels of mycotoxins in African foods. Thus, knowledge of the contributions of different factors responsible for high levels of these toxins will be a good starting point for the effective mitigation of mycotoxins in Africa. Google Scholar was used to conduct a systemic search. Six factors were found to be linked to high levels of mycotoxins in African foods, in varying degrees. Climate change remains the main driving factor in the production of mycotoxins. The other factors are partly man-made and can be manipulated to become a more profitable or less climate-sensitive response. Awareness of the existence of these mycotoxins and their economic as well as health consequences remains paramount. The degree of management of these factors regarding mycotoxins varies from one region of the world to another.

Factors during Production of Cereal-Derived Feed That Influence Mycotoxin Contents

Mycotoxins are naturally present in cereal-based feed materials; however, due to adverse effects on animal health, their presence in derived animal feed should be minimized. A systematic literature search was conducted to obtain an overview of all factors from harvest onwards influencing the presence and concentration of mycotoxins in cereal-based feeds. The feed production processes covered included the harvest time, post-harvest practices (drying, cleaning, storage), and processing (milling, mixing with mycotoxin binders, extrusion cooking, ensiling). Delayed harvest supports the production of multiple mycotoxins. The way feed materials are dried after harvest influences the concentration of mycotoxins therein. Applying fungicides on the feed materials after harvest as well as cleaning and sorting can lower the concentration of mycotoxins. During milling, mycotoxins might be redistributed in cereal feed materials and fractions thereof. It is important to know which parts of the cereals are used for feed production and whether or not mycotoxins predominantly accumulate in these fractions. For feed production, mostly the milling fractions with outer parts of cereals, such as bran and shorts, are used, in which mycotoxins concentrate during processing. Wet-milling of grains can lower the mycotoxin content in these parts of the grain. However, this is typically accompanied by translocation of mycotoxins to the liquid fractions, which might be added to by-products used as feed. Mycotoxin binders can be added during mixing of feed materials. Although binders do not remove mycotoxins from the feed, the mycotoxins become less bioavailable to the animal and, in the case of food-producing animals, to the consumer, lowering the adverse effects of mycotoxins. The effect of extruding cereal feed materials is dependent on several factors, but in principle, mycotoxin contents are decreased after extrusion cooking. The results on ensiling are not uniform; however, most of the data show that mycotoxin production is supported during ensiling when oxygen can enter this process. Overall, the results of the literature review suggest that factors preventing mycotoxin production have greater impact than factors lowering the mycotoxin contents already present in feed materials.

Structure-toxicity relationships, toxicity mechanisms and health risk assessment of food-borne modified deoxynivalenol and zearalenone: A comprehensive review

Mycotoxin, as one of the most common pollutants in foodstuffs, poses great threat to food security and human health. Specifically, deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN)-two mycotoxin contaminants with considerable toxicity widely existing in food products-have aroused broad public concerns. Adding to this picture, modified forms of DON and ZEN, have emerged as another potential environmental and health threat, owing to their higher re-transformation rate into parent mycotoxins inducing accumulation of mycotoxin in humans and animals. Given this, a better understanding of the toxicity of modified mycotoxins is urgently needed. Moreover, the lack of toxicity data means a proper risk assessment of modified mycotoxins remains challenging. To better evaluate the toxicity of modified DON and ZEN, we have reviewed the relationship between their structures and toxicities. The toxicity mechanisms behind modified DON and ZEN have also been discussed; briefly, these involve acute, subacute, chronic, and combined toxicities. In addition, this review also addresses the global occurrence of modified DON and ZEN, and summarizes novel methods-including in silico analysis and implementation of relative potency factors-for risk assessment of modified DON and ZEN. Finally, the health risk assessment of modified DON and ZEN has also been discussed comprehensively.

Updates on food and feed mycotoxin contamination and safety in Africa with special reference to Nigeria

Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed is a major concern in sub-Sahara African countries, particularly Nigeria. It represents a significant limit to health of human, livestock as well as the international trade. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and beauvericin are the major mycotoxins recognised in the aetiology of food safety challenges that precipitated countless number of diseases. In Nigeria, aflatoxins and fumonisin found in nearly all crops are the most common mycotoxins of economic and health importance such as sorghum, maize and groundnuts. Thus, consumption of food contaminated with mycotoxins are inevitable, hence the need for adequate regulation is necessary in these frontier economies as done in many developed economies to ensure food safety for human and animals. In low and middle-income countries, especially Nigeria, there is lack of awareness and sufficient information on the risk associated with consequent of mycotoxin contamination on wellbeing of human, animals health and the economy. It is based on the foregoing that this paper summarized the status of mycotoxin present in Nigerian food and feeds relative to the global regulatory standards. This aimed at preventing consuming mycotoxin contaminated food stuff while confronting its associated challenges. Suggestions on some possible control strategies to mitigate vending mycotoxin food and feeds were made.

Patterns of Diversity of Fusarium Fungi Contaminating Soybean Grains

Soybean is an important, high protein source of food and feed. However, like other agricultural grains, soybean may pose a risk to human and animal health due to contamination of the grains with toxigenic Fusaria and associated mycotoxins. In this study, we investigated the diversity of Fusaria on a panel of 104 field isolates obtained from soybean grains during the growing seasons in 2017-2020. The results of species-specific PCR analyses showed that Fusarium avenaceum was the most common (n = 40) species associated with soybean grains in Poland, followed by F. equiseti (n = 22) and F. sporotrichioides (11 isolates). A set of isolates, which was not determined based on PCR analyses, was whole genome sequenced. Multiple sequence analyses using tef-1α, top1, rpb1, rpb2, tub2, pgk, cam and lsu genes showed that most of them belonged to Equiseti clade. Three cryptic species from this clade: F. clavum, F. flagelliforme and FIESC 31 (lacking Latin binomial) were found on soybean for the first time. This is the first report demonstrating the prevalence of Fusaria on soybean grains in Poland.

Assessment of the Risk of Contamination of Food for Infants and Toddlers

Infants and toddlers are highly sensitive to contaminants in food. Chronic exposure can lead to developmental delays, disorders of the nervous, urinary and immune systems, and to cardiovascular disease. A literature review was conducted mainly in PubMed, Google Scholar and Scopus databases, and took into consideration papers published from October 2020 to March 2021. We focused on contaminant content, intake estimates, and exposure to contaminants most commonly found in foods consumed by infants and children aged 0.5-3 years. In the review, we included 83 publications with full access. Contaminants that pose a high health risk are toxic elements, acrylamide, bisphenol, and pesticide residues. Minor pollutants include: dioxins, mycotoxins, nitrates and nitrites, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In order to reduce the negative health effects of food contamination, it seems reasonable to educate parents to limit foods that are potentially dangerous for infants and young children. An appropriate varied diet, selected cooking techniques, and proper food preparation can increase the likelihood that the foods children consume are safe for their health. It is necessary to monitor food contamination, adhere to high standards at every stage of production, and improve the quality of food for children.

Prevalence and concentration of fumonisins in cereal-based foods: a global systematic review and meta-analysis study

Cereal-based foods are utilized as an essential food segment worldwide. Nevertheless, their contamination by mycotoxins, also fumonisins, could pose a critical health risk. The present research provides the first systematic review regarding the prevalence and concentration of fumonisins in cereal-based food with the aid of a meta-analysis. In this regard, some international databases PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Scopus were explored during the last 30 years. Among 9729 screened articles, 73 articles (which meet the proposed inclusion criteria), including 11,132 data, were incorporated in the performed meta-analysis. The overall rank order regarding the concentration of fumonisins in cereal-based foods was corn-based foods > wheat-based foods > other cereal foods > barley-based foods > rice-based foods > oat-based foods. Based on the prevalence of fumonisins, the overall rank order was other cereal foods > corn-based foods > rice-based foods > wheat-based foods > oat-based foods > barley-based food. The present meta-analysis results can be a beneficial database for risk assessment model progress, which can help industries and organizations decrease the presence of fumonisins in cereal-based food.

The fate of mycotoxins during secondary food processing of maize for human consumption

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring fungal metabolites that are associated with health hazards and are widespread in cereals including maize. The most common mycotoxins in maize that occur at relatively high levels are fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone, and aflatoxins; furthermore, other mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin A are frequently present in maize. For these toxins, maximum levels are laid down in the European Union (EU) for maize raw materials and maize-based foods. The current review article gives a comprehensive overview on the different mycotoxins (including mycotoxins not regulated by EU law) and their fate during secondary processing of maize, based on the data published in the scientific literature. Furthermore, potential compliance with the EU maximum levels is discussed where appropriate. In general, secondary processing can impact mycotoxins in various ways. Besides changes in mycotoxin levels due to fractionation, dilution, and/or concentration, mycotoxins can be affected in their chemical structure (causing degradation or modification) or be released from or bound to matrix components. In the current review, a special focus is set on the effect on mycotoxins caused by different heat treatments, namely, baking, roasting, frying, (pressure) cooking, and extrusion cooking. Production processes involving multiple heat treatments are exemplified with the cornflakes production. For that, potential compliance with FB maximum levels was assessed. Moreover, effects of fermentation of maize matrices and production of maize germ oil are covered by this review.

Mycotoxin Occurrence, Exposure and Health Implications in Infants and Young Children in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review

Infants and young children (IYC) remain the most vulnerable population group to environmental hazards worldwide, especially in economically developing regions such as sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). As a result, several governmental and non-governmental institutions including health, environmental and food safety networks and researchers have been proactive toward protecting this group. Mycotoxins, toxic secondary fungal metabolites, contribute largely to the health risks of this young population. In SSA, the scenario is worsened by socioeconomic status, poor agricultural and storage practices, and low level of awareness, as well as the non-establishment and lack of enforcement of regulatory limits in the region. Studies have revealed mycotoxin occurrence in breast milk and other weaning foods. Of concern is the early exposure of infants to mycotoxins through transplacental transfer and breast milk as a consequence of maternal exposure, which may result in adverse health effects. The current paper presents an overview of mycotoxin occurrence in foods intended for IYC in SSA. It discusses the imperative evidence of mycotoxin exposure of this population group in SSA, taking into account consumption data and the occurrence of mycotoxins in food, as well as biomonitoring approaches. Additionally, it discusses the health implications associated with IYC exposure to mycotoxins in SSA.

Parallel validation of a green-solvent extraction method and quantitative estimation of multi-mycotoxins in staple cereals using LC-MS/MS

In this study, 15 different mycotoxins were estimated in three staple cereals from selected agro-ecological regions in Nigeria using a 'novel' green extraction method, pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE) in comparison to a conventional solvent extraction method. Discrimination of the results of PHWE and solvent extraction using principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal projection to latent structures discriminate analysis (OPLS-DA) did not yield any differential clustering patterns. All maize samples (n = 16), 32% (n = 38) of sorghum and 35% (n = 37) of millet samples were positive for at least one of the 15 tested mycotoxins. Contamination levels for the cereals were higher in the warm humid rain forest region and gradually decreased towards the hot and arid region in the north of the country. The results demonstrate the applicability of PHWE as a possible alternative extraction method to conventional methods of extraction, which are solvent based.

Study on Trichothecene and Zearalenone Presence in Romanian Wheat Relative to Weather Conditions

To evaluate the influence of weather conditions on mycotoxin presence in wheat, deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3AcDON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15AcDON), fusarenon-X (FUS-X), nivalenol (NIV), HT-2 toxin (HT-2), T-2 toxin (T-2), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), neosolaniol (NEO) and zearalenone (ZEN) were evaluated in 102 Romanian wheat samples coming from five wheat growing areas during 2015. Only six mycotoxins were detected, while FUS-X, DAS, NEO and NIV were not present in the wheat samples. Mycotoxin concentrations were correlated with precipitation and temperature values during anthesis and the preharvest period. Overall, the highest frequency was registered for DON, while the lowest frequency was registered for NIV. In the North Muntenia, DON and ZEN registered high frequencies (68% and 16%, respectively). This region was characterized in June and July by medium to high values of rainfall (41⁻100 mm/month) and normal temperatures (mean of 20.0 °C in June and 24.0 °C in July), suggesting that precipitation levels influence fungi and mycotoxin development to a greater extent compared to the influence of temperature.