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Kupriyanova OV, Shevyrin VA, Sadykova RG, Shafran YM. Identification of thermolabile positional isomers of N-(2-hydroxybenzyl)-2-(dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamines (NBOH series) using chromatography and mass spectrometry methods. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 38263625 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Abstract
Among N-((2-substituted)benzyl)phenylethanamines, N-(2-hydroxybenzyl)phenylethanamines are a special type of compounds which are thermolabile and degrade in the course of analysis by means of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). This can lead to substantial errors, in the identification of legally controlled compounds of this series containing methoxy groups at positions 2 and 5 of the benzene ring of the phenylethyl fragment by GC-MS, which is commonly used in forensic and toxicological laboratories. Exemplified by the five isomeric 2-(dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-hydroxybenzyl)ethanamines, it was shown that their derivatization with trifluoroacetic anhydride (same as in the case of the N-(2-methoxybenzyl)-, N-(2-fluorobenzyl)-, N-(2-chlorobenzyl)-, and N-(2-bromobenzyl)substitutes phenylethanamines [NBOMe, NBF, NBCl, and NBBr, respectively] series described earlier) results in only one product, N-monosubstituted derivative, for each positional isomer within a series, which makes it possible to reliably identify each compound by the GC-MS method. In addition, chromatographic conditions for sufficient separation of trifluoroacetyl derivatives of these positional isomers of the NBOH series in 25 min are proposed, which is an important aspect for analysis in forensic laboratories engaged in the determination of narcotic drugs and new psychoactive substances. As an alternative approach, a method for identifying positional isomers of the NBOH series by the high-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS) method without derivatization is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga V Kupriyanova
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Kazan, Russian Federation
- Kazan State Medical University, Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - Vadim A Shevyrin
- Institute of Chemical Engineering, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russian Federation
| | | | - Yuri M Shafran
- Institute of Chemical Engineering, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russian Federation
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Xu Q, Zhou L, Lv M, Chen Z, Hu C, Xiang P, Chen H. Nontargeted screening based on EI-MS spectra using statistical methods: An investigative study of synthetic indole/indazole cannabinoids. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2023; 37:e9524. [PMID: 37062936 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.9524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Mass spectrometry has evolved into a highly powerful tool for qualitative and quantitative chemical analyses. However, the identification of trace amounts of previously unknown structures in complex chemical matrix environments remains challenging. The rapid emergence of new synthetic cannabinoid substances is a typical example of this. Existing laboratory techniques are mostly based on methods used for lists of known illegal compounds. This situation poses a challenge to traditional data analysis and the risk of missing the compounds. Therefore, we propose to develop and validate a statistical model to classify newly emerging synthetic cannabinoid substances into a structural class or subclass. METHODS We obtained 70 electrospray ionization spectra of indole/indazole synthetic cannabinoids from both the actual standard analysis and the SWGDRUG mass spectral library (version 3.10). Each sample consisted of 330 m/z variables and corresponding relative intensities. We first cleared the variables with a variance below 0.1. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on the variance-filtered data, and the two principal components were retained to generate new data for hierarchical clustering. After hierarchical clustering, we used the receiver operating characteristic method in this cluster. RESULTS Seventy synthetic indole/indazole cannabinoids were classified into four clusters. The side chain of cluster 1 is mainly fluorobenzyl, cluster 2 is pentyl, cluster 3 includes compounds from several structures, and cluster 4 is mainly fluoropentyl. The most relevant characteristic ions are m/z 109, m/z 252, and m/z 253 for cluster 1; m/z 144 and m/z 214 for cluster 2; and m/z 232 and m/z 233 for cluster 4. CONCLUSIONS This study provides a more objective and less time-consuming solution for characterizing synthetic cannabinoids. And this work validates the ability of PCA to extract characteristic fragment ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Xu
- Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Liying Zhou
- Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Min Lv
- Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhuonan Chen
- Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chi Hu
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hang Chen
- Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
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3
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Bonetti JL, Kranenburg RF, Schoonderwoerd E, Samanipour S, van Asten AC. Instrument-independent chemometric models for rapid, calibration-free NPS isomer differentiation from mass spectral GC-MS data. Forensic Sci Int 2023:111650. [PMID: 37028998 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2023.111650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
Chemometric analysis of mass spectral data for the purpose of differentiating positional isomers of novel psychoactive substances has seen a substantial increase in popularity in recent years. However, the process of generating a large and robust dataset for chemometric isomer identification is time consuming and impractical for forensic laboratories. To begin to address this problem, three sets of ortho/meta/para positional ring isomers (fluoroamphetamine (FA), fluoromethamphetamine (FMA), and methylmethcathinone (MMC)) were analyzed using multiple GC-MS instruments at three distinct laboratories. A diverse assortment of instrument manufacturers, model types, and parameters was utilized in order to incorporate substantial instrumental variation. The dataset was randomly split into 70% training and 30% validation sets, stratified by instrument. Following an approach based on Design of Experiments, the validation set was used to optimize the preprocessing steps performed prior to Linear Discriminant Analysis. Using the optimized model, a minimum m/z fragment threshold was determined to allow analysts to assess whether an unknown spectrum is of sufficient abundance and quality to be compared to the model. To assess the robustness of the models, a test set was developed utilizing two instruments from a fourth laboratory that was not involved in the generation of the primary dataset in addition to spectra from widely used mass spectral libraries. Of the spectra that reached the threshold, the classification accuracy was 100% for all three isomer types. Only two of the test and validation spectra that did not reach the threshold were misclassified. The results indicate that forensic illicit drug experts world-wide can use these models for robust NPS isomer identification on the basis of preprocessed mass spectral data without the need for acquiring reference drug standards and creating instrument specific GC-MS reference datasets. The continued robustness of the models could be ensured through international collaboration to collect data that captures all potential GC-MS instrumental variation encountered in forensic illicit drug analysis laboratories. This would allow every forensic institute to confidently assign isomeric structures without the need for additional chemical analysis.
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Nieddu M, Baralla E, Sodano F, Boatto G. Analysis of 2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamines and 2,5-dimethoxy-phenethylamines aiming their determination in biological matrices: a review. Forensic Toxicol 2023; 41:1-24. [PMID: 36652064 PMCID: PMC9849320 DOI: 10.1007/s11419-022-00638-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The present review aims to provide an overview of methods for the quantification of 2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamines and -phenethylamines in different biological matrices, both traditional and alternative ones. METHODS A complete literature search was carried out with PubMed, Scopus and the World Wide Web using relevant keywords, e.g., designer drugs, amphetamines, phenethylamines, and biological matrices. RESULTS Synthetic phenethylamines represent one of the largest classes of "designer drugs", obtained through chemical structure modifications of psychoactive substances to increase their pharmacological activities. This practice is also favored by the fact that every new synthetic compound is not considered illegal by existing legislation. Generally, in a toxicological laboratory, the first monitoring of drugs of abuse is made by rapid screening tests that sometimes can occur in false positive or false negative results. To reduce evaluation errors, it is mandatory to submit the positive samples to confirmatory methods, such as gas chromatography or liquid chromatography combined to mass spectrometry, for a more specific qualitative and quantitative analysis. CONCLUSIONS This review highlights the great need for updated comprehensive analytical methods, particularly when analyzing biological matrices, both traditional and alternative ones, for the search of newly emerging designer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Nieddu
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, 07100, Sassari, Italy.
| | - Elena Baralla
- grid.11450.310000 0001 2097 9138Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Federica Sodano
- grid.4691.a0000 0001 0790 385XDepartment of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Gianpiero Boatto
- grid.11450.310000 0001 2097 9138Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
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Kranenburg RF, Ramaker HJ, van Asten AC. Portable near infrared spectroscopy for the isomeric differentiation of new psychoactive substances. Forensic Sci Int 2022; 341:111467. [PMID: 36154979 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2022.111467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Rapid and efficient identification of the precise isomeric form of new psychoactive substances (NPS) by forensic casework laboratories is a relevant challenge in the forensic field. Differences in legal status occur for ring-isomeric species of the same class, thus leading to different penalties and judicial control. Portable systems such as near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy recently emerged as suitable techniques for the on-scene identification of common drugs of abuse such as cocaine, MDMA and amphetamine. This way, the overall forensic process becomes more efficient as relevant information on substance identity becomes available directly at the scene of crime. Currently, no NIR-based applications exist for the rapid, on-scene detection of NPS isomers. Herein, we present the differentiation of cathinone and phenethylamine-type NPS analogues based on their NIR spectrum recorded in 2 seconds on a portable 1350 - 2600 nm spectrometer. A prior developed data analysis model was found suitable for the identification of the methylmethcathinone (MMC) isomers 2-MMC, 3-MMC and 4-MMC. In 51 mixtures and 22 seized casework samples, the correct isomeric form was detected in all cases except for a few mixtures with an active ingredient content of 10 wt%. These results show the feasibility of on-site NPS detection as presumptive test performed directly at the scene of crime with a small size NIR-spectrometer. Additionally, in the illicit drug analysis laboratory the combination of NIR and GC-MS analysis might be suitable for robust identification of NPS isomers and analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben F Kranenburg
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Kabelweg 25, Amsterdam 1014 BA, the Netherlands; Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, the Netherlands.
| | - Henk-Jan Ramaker
- TIPb, Koningin Wilhelminaplein 30, Amsterdam 1062 KR, the Netherlands
| | - Arian C van Asten
- Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, the Netherlands; Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, the Netherlands
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Sharp J, Do D, Tyler Davidson J. Assessment of the similarity between in-source collision-induced dissociation (IS-CID) fragment ion spectra and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) product ion spectra for seized drug identifications. Forensic Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2022.100441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Bonetti JL, Samanipour S, van Asten AC. Utilization of Machine Learning for the Differentiation of Positional NPS Isomers with Direct Analysis in Real Time Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2022; 94:5029-5040. [PMID: 35297608 PMCID: PMC8968871 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c04985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The differentiation
of positional isomers is a well established
analytical challenge for forensic laboratories. As more novel psychoactive
substances (NPSs) are introduced to the illicit drug market, robust
yet efficient methods of isomer identification are needed. Although
current literature suggests that Direct Analysis in Real Time–Time-of-Flight
mass spectrometry (DART-ToF) with in-source collision induced dissociation
(is-CID) can be used to differentiate positional isomers, it is currently
unclear whether this capability extends to positional isomers whose
only structural difference is the precise location of a single substitution
on an aromatic ring. The aim of this work was to determine whether
chemometric analysis of DART-ToF data could offer forensic laboratories
an alternative rapid and robust method of differentiating NPS positional
ring isomers. To test the feasibility of this technique, three positional
isomer sets (fluoroamphetamine, fluoromethamphetamine, and methylmethcathinone)
were analyzed. Using a linear rail for consistent sample introduction,
the three isomers of each type were analyzed 96 times over an eight-week
timespan. The classification methods investigated included a univariate
approach, the Welch t test at each included ion;
a multivariate approach, linear discriminant analysis; and a machine
learning approach, the Random Forest classifier. For each method,
multiple validation techniques were used including restricting the
classifier to data that was only generated on one day. Of these classification
methods, the Random Forest algorithm was ultimately the most accurate
and robust, consistently achieving out-of-bag error rates below 5%.
At an inconclusive rate of approximately 5%, a success rate of 100%
was obtained for isomer identification when applied to a randomly
selected test set. The model was further tested with data acquired
as a part of a different batch. The highest classification success
rate was 93.9%, and error rates under 5% were consistently achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Bonetti
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands.,Virginia Department of Forensic Science, Norfolk, Virginia 23606, United States
| | - Saer Samanipour
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands
| | - Arian C van Asten
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands.,Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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8
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Kupriyanova OV, Shevyrin VA, Shafran YM. Potential of chromatography and mass spectrometry for the differentiation of three series of positional isomers of 2-(dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-halogenobenzyl)ethanamines. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1102-1115. [PMID: 35106940 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
N-(2-Substituted benzyl)-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamines often cause severe poisonings which has led to their legal prohibition in many countries. At the same time, their positional isomers can be studied as potential therapeutic drugs. In this regard, the search for various approaches to differentiate these isomers is an important practical task, the solution of which would guarantee from identification errors during laboratory analysis. In this paper, the possibilities of differentiation of isomers varying in the position of two methoxy groups in the phenylethyl part of the molecule are considered on the example of compounds of NBF, NBCl and NBBr series by chromatography-mass spectrometry methods. Gas or liquid reverse-phase chromatography in the proposed chromatographic separation modes has demonstrated their ability to resolve this problem reliably. Data on retention indices of isomeric compounds and their derivatives can serve as an additional identification criterion for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Differentiation of NBF and NBCl isomers using electron ionization (EI) mass spectra is feasible only if both the spectrum of the compound and its N-trifluoroacetyl derivative are registered; differentiation of NBBr positional isomers under these conditions does not require obtaining the derivatives. Using electrospray ion source, the compounds can easily be differentiated based on the distinctive features of their collision induced dissociation (CID) spectra recorded at low energy values, which also does not require the synthesis of derivatives. The data presented in current paper will be useful for analysis in laboratories providing the determination of narcotic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga V Kupriyanova
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Kazan, Russian Federation.,Kazan State Medical University, Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - Vadim A Shevyrin
- Ural Federal University, Institute of Chemistry and Technology, Ekaterinburg, Russian Federation
| | - Yuri M Shafran
- Ural Federal University, Institute of Chemistry and Technology, Ekaterinburg, Russian Federation
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Liliedahl RE, Davidson JT. The differentiation of synthetic cathinone isomers using GC-EI-MS and multivariate analysis. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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10
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Kranenburg RF, Stuyver LI, de Ridder R, van Beek A, Colmsee E, van Asten AC. Deliberate evasion of narcotic legislation: Trends visualized in commercial mixtures of new psychoactive substances analyzed by GC-solid deposition-FTIR. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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11
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GC–MS and GC–IR analysis of substituted N-benzyl 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylisopropylamines. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Sauzier G, van Bronswijk W, Lewis SW. Chemometrics in forensic science: approaches and applications. Analyst 2021; 146:2415-2448. [PMID: 33729240 DOI: 10.1039/d1an00082a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Forensic investigations are often reliant on physical evidence to reconstruct events surrounding a crime. However, there remains a need for more objective approaches to evidential interpretation, along with rigorously validated procedures for handling, storage and analysis. Chemometrics has been recognised as a powerful tool within forensic science for interpretation and optimisation of analytical procedures. However, careful consideration must be given to factors such as sampling, validation and underpinning study design. This tutorial review aims to provide an accessible overview of chemometric methods within the context of forensic science. The review begins with an overview of selected chemometric techniques, followed by a broad review of studies demonstrating the utility of chemometrics across various forensic disciplines. The tutorial review ends with the discussion of the challenges and emerging trends in this rapidly growing field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgina Sauzier
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia.
| | - Wilhelm van Bronswijk
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia.
| | - Simon W Lewis
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia.
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GC–MS and GC–IR analysis of methylenedioxyphenylalkylamine analogues of the psychoactive 25X-NBOMe drugs. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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14
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Fast & fluorinated – Development and validation of a rapid benchtop NMR approach and other routine screening methods for the detection and quantification of synthesized fluorofentanyl derivatives. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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15
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Almalki AJ, Clark CR, Abiedalla Y, DeRuiter J. GC–MS analysis of N-(bromodimethoxybenzyl)-2-, 3-, and 4-methoxyphenethylamines: Inverse analogues of the psychoactive 25B-NBOMe drug. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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16
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Feeney W, Moorthy AS, Sisco E. Spectral trends in GC-EI-MS data obtained from the SWGDRUG mass spectral library and literature: A resource for the identification of unknown compounds. Forensic Chem 2020; 31:10.1016/j.forc.2022.100459. [PMID: 36578315 PMCID: PMC9793444 DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2022.100459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Rapid identification of new or emerging psychoactive substances remains a critical challenge in forensic drug chemistry laboratories. Current analytical protocols are well-designed for confirmation of known substances yet struggle when new compounds are encountered. Many laboratories initially attempt to classify new compounds using gas chromatography-electron ionization-mass spectrometry (GC-EI-MS). Though there is a large body of research focused on the analysis of illicit substances with GC-EI-MS, there is little high-level discussion of mass spectral trends for different classes of drugs. This manuscript compiles literature information and performs simple exploratory analyses on evaluated GC-EI-MS data to investigate mass spectral trends for illicit substance classes. Additionally, this work offers other important aspects: brief discussions of how each class of drugs is used; illustrations of EI mass spectra with proposed structures of commonly observed ions; and summaries of mass spectral trends that can help an analyst classify new illicit compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Feeney
- Corresponding author at: Surface and Trace Chemical Analysis Group, Material Measurement Laboratory, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA. (W. Feeney)
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17
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Tanen JL, Lurie IS, Marginean I. Gas chromatography with dual cold electron ionization mass spectrometry and vacuum ultraviolet detection for the analysis of phenylethylamine analogues. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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18
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Gilbert N, Mewis RE, Sutcliffe OB. Classification of fentanyl analogues through principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering of GC–MS data. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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19
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Boegelsack N, Sandau C, McMartin DW, Withey JM, O'Sullivan G. Development of retention time indices for comprehensive multidimensional gas chromatography and application to ignitable liquid residue mapping in wildfire investigations. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1635:461717. [PMID: 33254004 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 11/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we introduce a simple three-step workflow for a universally applicable RI system, to be used in GC×GC analysis of ignitable liquid residue (ILR) for arson investigations. The proposed RI system applies a combination of two well-established GC RI systems: non-isothermal Kovats (K) index in the first dimension and Lee (L) index in the second dimension. The proposed KLI RI system showed very good correlations when compared with predicted values and existing RI systems (r2 = 0.97 in first dimension, r2 = 0.99 in second dimension) and was valid for a wide range of analyte concentrations and operational settings (coefficient of variance (CV) < 1% in first dimension, < 10% in second dimension). Using the KLI RI, an ILR classification contour map was created to assist with the identification of ILR types within ASTM E1618. The contour map was successfully applied to neat fuels and a fire scene sample, highlighting the application to wildfire investigation. Standardizing the RI process and establishing acceptable error margins allows the exploration and comparison of comprehensive data generated from GC×GC analysis of ILRs regardless of location, time, or system, further enhancing comprehensive and tenable chemometric analyses of samples. Overall, the KLI workflow was inexpensive, quick to apply, and user-friendly with its simple 3-step design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadin Boegelsack
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Mount Royal University, 4825 Mount Royal Gate SW, Calgary, AB Canada, T3E 6K6; Department of Civil, Geological and Environmental Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, 57 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK Canada, S7N 5A9.
| | - Court Sandau
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Mount Royal University, 4825 Mount Royal Gate SW, Calgary, AB Canada, T3E 6K6; Chemistry Matters Inc., 104-1240 Kensington Rd NW Suite 405, Calgary, AB Canada, T2N 3P7
| | - Dena W McMartin
- Department of Civil, Geological and Environmental Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, 57 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK Canada, S7N 5A9
| | - Jonathan M Withey
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Mount Royal University, 4825 Mount Royal Gate SW, Calgary, AB Canada, T3E 6K6
| | - Gwen O'Sullivan
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Mount Royal University, 4825 Mount Royal Gate SW, Calgary, AB Canada, T3E 6K6
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20
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Brown HM, McDaniel TJ, Fedick PW, Mulligan CC. The current role of mass spectrometry in forensics and future prospects. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2020; 12:3974-3997. [PMID: 32720670 DOI: 10.1039/d0ay01113d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry (MS) techniques are highly prevalent in crime laboratories, particularly those coupled to chromatographic separations like gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (LC). These methods are considered "gold standard" analytical techniques for forensic analysis and have been extensively validated for producing prosecutorial evidentiary data. However, factors such as growing evidence backlogs and problematic evidence types (e.g., novel psychoactive substance (NPS) classes) have exposed limitations of these stalwart techniques. This critical review serves to delineate the current role of MS methods across the broad sub-disciplines of forensic science, providing insight on how governmental steering committees guide their implementation. Novel, developing techniques that seek to broaden applicability and enhance performance will also be highlighted, from unique modifications to traditional hyphenated MS methods to the newer "ambient" MS techniques that show promise for forensic analysis, but need further validation before incorporation into routine forensic workflows. This review also expounds on how recent improvements to MS instrumental design, scan modes, and data processing could cause a paradigm shift in how the future forensic practitioner collects and processes target evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilary M Brown
- Chemistry Division, Research Department, Naval Air Warfare Center, Weapons Division (NAWCWD), United States Navy Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), China Lake, California 93555, USA.
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Lum BJ, Brettell TA, Brophy JJ, Brynn Hibbert D. Identification of a new class of thermolabile psychoactive compounds, 4-substituted 2-(4-X-2, 5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-[(2-hydroxyphenyl)methyl]ethanamine (25X-NBOH, X = Cl, Br, or I) by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry using chemical derivatization by heptafluorobutyric anhydride (HFBA). Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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22
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Stuhmer EL, McGuffin VL, Waddell Smith R. Discrimination of seized drug positional isomers based on statistical comparison of electron-ionization mass spectra. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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23
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Kranenburg RF, Verduin J, Stuyver LI, de Ridder R, van Beek A, Colmsee E, van Asten AC. Benefits of derivatization in GC–MS-based identification of new psychoactive substances. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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24
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Kupriyanova OV, Shevyrin VA, Shafran YM, Lebedev AT, Milyukov VA, Rusinov VL. Synthesis and determination of analytical characteristics and differentiation of positional isomers in the series of
N
‐(2‐methoxybenzyl)‐2‐(dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine using chromatography–mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:1154-1170. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Olga V. Kupriyanova
- A.E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry FRC Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan Scientific Center Kazan Russian Federation
- Kazan State Medical University Kazan Russian Federation
| | - Vadim A. Shevyrin
- Ural Federal University Institute of Chemistry and Technology Ekaterinburg Russian Federation
| | - Yuri M. Shafran
- Ural Federal University Institute of Chemistry and Technology Ekaterinburg Russian Federation
| | - Albert T. Lebedev
- Organic Chemistry Department Lomonosov Moscow State University Moscow Russian Federation
| | - Vasili A. Milyukov
- A.E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry FRC Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan Scientific Center Kazan Russian Federation
| | - Vladimir L. Rusinov
- Ural Federal University Institute of Chemistry and Technology Ekaterinburg Russian Federation
- Postovsky Institute of Organic Synthesis Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yekaterinburg Russian Federation
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Abstract
This manuscript outlines a straight-forward procedure for generating a map of similarity between spectra of a set. When applied to a reference set of spectra for Type I fentanyl analogs (molecules differing from fentanyl by a single modification), the map illuminates clustering that is applicable to automated structure assignment of unidentified molecules. An open-source software implementation that generates mass spectral similarity mappings of unknowns against a library of Type I fentanyl analog spectra is available at http://github.com/asm3-nist/FentanylClassifier.
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Almalki AJ, Smith L, Abiedalla Y, Clark CR, DeRuiter J. Vapor phase infrared identification of regioisomeric N-(dimethoxybenzyl)-4-iodo- and 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamines. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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27
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Revealing hidden information in GC–MS spectra from isomeric drugs: Chemometrics based identification from 15 eV and 70 eV EI mass spectra. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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28
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Almalki AJ, Smith L, Clark CR, DeRuiter J. Vapor phase GC-IR identification of regioisomeric N-methoxybenzyl-4-substituted-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamines (NBOMe). Forensic Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2019.100181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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