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Swaminathan M, Tarifa A, DeCaprio AP. Development and validation of a method for analysis of 25 cannabinoids in oral fluid and exhaled breath condensate. Anal Bioanal Chem 2024; 416:4325-4340. [PMID: 38864915 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-024-05369-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
Currently, there is a significant demand in forensic toxicology for biomarkers of cannabis exposure that, unlike ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol, can reliably indicate time and frequency of use, be sampled with relative ease, and correlate with impairment. Oral fluid (OF) and exhaled breath condensate (EBC) are alternative, non-invasive sample matrices that hold promise for identifying cannabis exposure biomarkers. OF, produced by salivary glands, is increasingly utilized in drug screening due to its non-invasive collection and is being explored as an alternative matrix for cannabinoid analysis. EBC is an aqueous specimen consisting of condensed water vapor containing water-soluble volatile and non-volatile components present in exhaled breath. Despite potential advantages, there are no reports on the use of EBC for cannabinoid detection. This study developed a supported liquid extraction approach and LC-QqQ-MS dMRM analytical method for quantification of 25 major and minor cannabinoids and metabolites in OF and EBC. The method was validated according to the ANSI/ASB 036 standard and other published guidelines. LOQ ranged from 0.5 to 6.0 ng/mL for all cannabinoids in both matrices. Recoveries for most analytes were 60-90%, with generally higher values for EBC compared to OF. Matrix effects were observed with some cannabinoids, with effects mitigated by use of matrix-matched calibration. Bias and precision were within ± 25%. Method applicability was demonstrated by analyzing ten authentic OF and EBC samples, with positive detections of multiple analytes in both matrices. The method will facilitate comprehensive analysis of cannabinoids in non-invasive sample matrices for the development of reliable cannabis exposure biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meena Swaminathan
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th St., Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Anamary Tarifa
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry and Global & Forensic Justice Center, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Anthony P DeCaprio
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th St., Miami, FL, 33199, USA.
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry and Global & Forensic Justice Center, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA.
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Feigel B, Adamowicz P, Wybraniec S. Recent advances in analysis of new psychoactive substances by means of liquid chromatography coupled with low-resolution tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2024; 416:107-124. [PMID: 38001373 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-05057-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 11/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023]
Abstract
The number of methods for the analysis of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is continually increasing, and there is no indication that this trend will change in the near future. The constantly growing market of "designer drugs" makes it necessary to develop new methods of their analysis. The aim of this review is to present the multi-component methods of detection and identification of NPS using low-resolution tandem mass spectrometry coupled with liquid chromatography. For this purpose, 36 articles were selected by applying strictly defined search criteria. Due to the large differences in the matrices and physicochemical properties of the analytes, the described research methods are diverse. These differences are visible in sample preparation methods, chromatographic columns, mobile phases, gradients, or additives to mobile phases used. This work collects and organizes the existing information on the subject of NPS screening analysis methods and will be helpful to forensic scientists working on this topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bartłomiej Feigel
- Jan Sehn Institute of Forensic Research, Cracow, Poland.
- Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland.
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Li J, Wang Y, Liu A, Liu S. Sensitive detection of synthetic cannabinoids in human blood using magnetic polydopamine molecularly imprinted polymer nanocomposites. Analyst 2023; 148:4850-4856. [PMID: 37622412 DOI: 10.1039/d3an01135f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are a series of artificial chemical substances with pharmacological properties similar to those of natural cannabinoids and their abuse poses a great risk to social security and human health. However, the highly sensitive detection of low concentrations of SCs in human serum remains a great challenge. In this work, we developed a highly sensitive, rapid and highly selective method for the detection of SCs in human serum. Magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) nanocomposites were prepared through self-polymerization of dopamine and template molecules on the surfaces of magnetic beads. 9H-Carbazole-9-hexanol (9CH) was used as a template molecule because of its long chain structure shared with six synthetic cannabinoids and its ability to provide specific recognition sites. With these magnetic MIP nanoparticles, six SCs could be rapidly and effectively extracted from human blood. The concentrations of six SCs could be accurately determined by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) analysis. The limits of detection were in the range of 0.1-0.3 ng mL-1. The proposed method is characterized by high sensitivity and selectivity, and has great potential for application in the analysis of practical samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajia Li
- Jiangsu Engineering Laboratory of Smart Carbon-Rich Materials and Device (CMD), Jiangsu Province Hi-Tech Key Laboratory for Bio-medical Research, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, P. R. China.
| | - Yong Wang
- Institute of Forensic Science and Technology of Nanjing Public Security Bureau, Nanjing, 210012, P. R. China
| | - Anran Liu
- Jiangsu Engineering Laboratory of Smart Carbon-Rich Materials and Device (CMD), Jiangsu Province Hi-Tech Key Laboratory for Bio-medical Research, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, P. R. China.
| | - Songqin Liu
- Jiangsu Engineering Laboratory of Smart Carbon-Rich Materials and Device (CMD), Jiangsu Province Hi-Tech Key Laboratory for Bio-medical Research, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, P. R. China.
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New Psychoactive Substances: Major Groups, Laboratory Testing Challenges, Public Health Concerns, and Community-Based Solutions. J CHEM-NY 2023. [DOI: 10.1155/2023/5852315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Across communities worldwide, various new psychoactive substances (NPSs) continue to emerge, which worsens the challenges to global mental health, drug rules, and public health risks, as well as combats their usage. Specifically, the vast number of NPSs that are currently available, coupled with the rate at which new ones emerge worldwide, increasingly challenges both forensic and clinical testing strategies. The well-established NPS detection techniques include immunoassays, colorimetric tests, mass spectrometric techniques, chromatographic techniques, and hyphenated types. Nonetheless, mitigating drug abuse and NPS usage is achievable through extensive community-based initiatives, with increased focus on harm reduction. Clinically validated and reliable testing of NPS from human samples, along with community-driven solution, such as harm reduction, will be of great importance, especially in combating their prevalence and the use of other illicit synthetic substances. There is a need for continued literature synthesis to reiterate the importance of NPS, given the continuous emergence of illicit substances in the recent years. All these are discussed in this overview, as we performed another look into NPS, from differentiating the major groups and identifying with laboratory testing challenges to community-based initiatives.
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Ameen A, Brown K, Dennany L. Can synthetic cannabinoids be reliably screened with electrochemistry? An assessment of the ability to screen for synthetic cannabinoids STS-135 and BB-22 within a single sample matrix. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2022.116141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Giorgetti A, Barone R, Pelletti G, Garagnani M, Pascali J, Haschimi B, Auwärter V. Development and validation of a rapid LC-MS/MS method for the detection of 182 novel psychoactive substances in whole blood. Drug Test Anal 2021; 14:202-223. [PMID: 34599648 PMCID: PMC9298299 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Introduction The analysis of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) represents a challenge in forensic toxicology, due to the high number of compounds characterized by different structures and physicochemical properties both among different subclasses and within a single subclass of NPS. The aim of the present work is the development and validation of a targeted liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS) method for the detection of NPS in whole blood. Materials and methods A protein‐precipitation based LC‐MS/MS method for the detection of more than 180 NPS was developed and validated by assessing the following parameters: selectivity, linearity, accuracy, precision, limit of detection (LOD) and of quantification (LOQ) recovery, and matrix effect. Then, the method was applied to real forensic samples. Results The method allowed the identification of 132 synthetic cannabinoids, 22 synthetic opioids, and 28 substances among synthetic cathinones, stimulants, and other drugs. Validation was successfully achieved for most of the compounds. Linearity was in the range of 0.25–10 ng/ml for synthetic cannabinoids and 0.25–25 ng/ml for other drugs. Accuracy and precision were acceptable according to international guidelines. Three cases tested positive for fentanyl and ketamine, in the setting of emergency room administration. Conclusions The present methodology represents a fast, not expensive, wide‐panel method for the analysis of more than 180 NPS by LC‐MS/MS, which can be profitably applied both in a clinical context and in postmortem toxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Giorgetti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Rossella Barone
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Guido Pelletti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marco Garagnani
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Jennifer Pascali
- Department of Legal and Occupational Medicine, Toxicology and Public Health, University Hospital of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Belal Haschimi
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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Pérez-Alcaraz A, Borrull F, Calull M, Aguilar C. Cathinones in urine samples: A review of recent advances for their determination by chromatographic and related techniques. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
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Redefining dilute and shoot: The evolution of the technique and its application in the analysis of foods and biological matrices by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Shafi A, Berry AJ, Sumnall H, Wood DM, Tracy DK. New psychoactive substances: a review and updates. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2020; 10:2045125320967197. [PMID: 33414905 PMCID: PMC7750892 DOI: 10.1177/2045125320967197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) are a heterogeneous group of substances. They are associated with a number of health and social harms on an individual and societal level. NPS toxicity and dependence syndromes are recognised in primary care, emergency departments, psychiatric inpatient and community care settings. One pragmatic classification system is to divide NPS into one of four groups: synthetic stimulants, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic hallucinogens and synthetic depressants (which include synthetic opioids and benzodiazepines). We review these four classes of NPS, including their chemical structures, mechanism of action, modes of use, intended intoxicant effects, and their associated physical and mental health harms. The current challenges faced by laboratory testing for NPS are also explored, in the context of the diverse range of NPS currently available, rate of production and emergence of new substances, the different formulations, and methods of acquisition and distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abu Shafi
- East London Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Alex J. Berry
- Division of Psychiatry, University College London, UK
| | | | - David M. Wood
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- Clinical Toxicology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Derek K. Tracy
- Consultant Psychiatrist, Oxleas NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- Department of Psychosis Studies, the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, DeCrespigny Park, London, SE5 8AF, UK
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Alexandridou A, Mouskeftara T, Raikos N, Gika HG. GC-MS analysis of underivatised new psychoactive substances in whole blood and urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2020; 1156:122308. [PMID: 33038866 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.122308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Herein a method was develop and validated for the detection and quantification of five new psychoactive substances (NPS) belonging to three categories: synthetic cathinones (mephedrone, 3,4-MDPV), opioids (AH-7921) and cannabinoids (JWH-018, AM-2201) by EI GC-MS. Target analytes were quantified in whole blood; in urine the same compounds plus methylone were detected. Liquid-liquid extraction by MTBE - butyl acetate (1:1, v/v) in blood and butyl acetate in urine was applied for the recovery of analytes, while no derivatization was necessary for their sensitive detection and quantification. The method showed good linearity for all analytes within a concentration range from 0.25 to 2 μg/mL for mephedrone, from 0.02 to 0.16 μg/mL for 3,4-MDPV and AH-7921 and from 0.005 to 0.04 μg/mL for JWH-018 and AM-2201. LOD ranged from 0.002 μg/mL (JWH-018 and AM-2201 in blood and urine), to 0.08 μg/mL (mephedrone in urine). LOQ in blood ranged from 0.005 μg/mL for JWH-018 and AM-2201 to 0.25 μg/mL for mephedrone. Accuracy was within acceptable limits with % bias ranging from +20% to -17.98% for intra-assay study and from +18.87% to -11.16% for inter-assay study. Precision was found to be between 2.60% and 17.17% (CV%) for intra-assay study and from 6.03% to 13.72% (CV%) for inter-assay study. An intra laboratory comparison provided proof of the method robustness. The developed method can be used for the reliable and fast quantification of five NPS in blood and the detection of six NPS in urine within the practice of a clinical or forensic toxicology laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Alexandridou
- Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Thomai Mouskeftara
- Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; BIOMIC_AUTH, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), Balkan Center B1.4, 10th Km Thessaloniki-Thermi Rd, P.O. Box 8318, GR 57001, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Raikos
- Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; BIOMIC_AUTH, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), Balkan Center B1.4, 10th Km Thessaloniki-Thermi Rd, P.O. Box 8318, GR 57001, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Helen G Gika
- Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; BIOMIC_AUTH, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), Balkan Center B1.4, 10th Km Thessaloniki-Thermi Rd, P.O. Box 8318, GR 57001, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Abuse of Licit and Illicit Psychoactive Substances in the Workplace: Medical, Toxicological, and Forensic Aspects. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9030770. [PMID: 32178358 PMCID: PMC7141377 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9030770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
About one-third of adult life is spent in the workplace. The use of psychoactive substances is a major preventable cause of morbidity and mortality. The consumption of psychoactive substances during or outside working hours greatly increases the frequency and severity of labor accidents, as well as the workers’ poor general state of health and productivity, implying higher costs for enterprises. It is the responsibility of organizations to ensure the safety and health of their workers. These cannot be limited to traditional routine clinical exams, as other aspects also have an impact on health. Thus, prevention and intervention in the consumption of psychoactive substances (e.g., ethanol, opioids, central nervous system stimulants or depressants, hallucinogens, Cannabis derivatives, dissociative substances, and inhalants) in labor activity should be considered as an investment of organizations and not as a cost, in view of the professional, personal, and family advantages for workers and employers, with a potential impact on productivity, security, health, and quality of life at work. Despite the extensive literature on the subject, each article generally focuses on one or another aspect of a very specific nature, not tackling the problem in a holistic way by confronting clinical, safety, and legal issues. This article presents a reflection on the legal, laboratorial, clinical, ethical, forensic, and safety concerns related to the consumption of psychoactive substances in the workplace, and can be a cross-cutting contribution to occupational medicine, forensic medicine, and insurance medicine, as well as for entrepreneurs, lawyers, judges, workers, and technicians from the public and private sectors that develop projects in this area. This discussion is based on general principles established internationally and highlights the role of the occupational healthcare system and other decision-making actors in the prevention and supervision of workplace psychoactive consumption.
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Salomone A, Palamar JJ, Vincenti M. Should NPS be included in workplace drug testing? Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:191-194. [PMID: 31840414 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Salomone
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Torino, Turin, Italy.,Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia "A. Bertinaria", , Orbassano, Turin, Italy
| | - Joseph J Palamar
- Department of Population Health, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marco Vincenti
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Torino, Turin, Italy.,Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia "A. Bertinaria", , Orbassano, Turin, Italy
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