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de Bruin-Hoegée M, van der Schans MJ, Langenberg JP, van Asten AC. Biomarker profiling in plants to distinguish between exposure to chlorine gas and bleach using LC-HRMS/MS and chemometrics. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 358:112022. [PMID: 38615427 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.112022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Since its first employment in World War I, chlorine gas has often been used as chemical warfare agent. Unfortunately, after suspected release, it is difficult to prove the use of chlorine as a chemical weapon and unambiguous verification is still challenging. Furthermore, similar evidence can be found for exposure to chlorine gas and other, less harmful chlorinating agents. Therefore, the current study aims to use untargeted high resolution mass spectrometric analysis of chlorinated biomarkers together with machine learning techniques to be able to differentiate between exposure of plants to various chlorinating agents. Green spire (Euonymus japonicus), stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), and feathergrass (Stipa tenuifolia) were exposed to 1000 and 7500 ppm chlorine gas and household bleach, pool bleach, and concentrated sodium hypochlorite. After sample preparation and digestion, the samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography high resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS) and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). More than 150 chlorinated compounds including plant fatty acids, proteins, and DNA adducts were tentatively identified. Principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) showed clear discrimination between chlorine gas and bleach exposure and grouping of the samples according to chlorine concentration and type of bleach. The identity of a set of novel biomarkers was confirmed using commercially available or synthetic reference standards. Chlorodopamine, dichlorodopamine, and trichlorodopamine were identified as specific markers for chlorine gas exposure. Fenclonine (Cl-Phe), 3-chlorotyrosine (Cl-Tyr), 3,5-dichlorotyrosine (di-Cl-Tyr), and 5-chlorocytosine (Cl-Cyt) were more abundantly present in plants after chlorine contact. In contrast, the DNA adduct 2-amino-6-chloropurine (Cl-Ade) was identified in both types of samples at a similar level. None of these chlorinated biomarkers were observed in untreated samples. The DNA adducts Cl-Cyt and Cl-Ade could clearly be identified even three months after the actual exposure. This study demonstrates the feasibility of forensic biomarker profiling in plants to distinguish between exposure to chlorine gas and bleach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirjam de Bruin-Hoegée
- van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, Amsterdam 1090GD, the Netherlands; TNO Defence, Safety and Security, Dep. CBRN Protection, Lange Kleiweg 137, Rijswijk 2288GJ, the Netherlands.
| | - Marcel J van der Schans
- TNO Defence, Safety and Security, Dep. CBRN Protection, Lange Kleiweg 137, Rijswijk 2288GJ, the Netherlands
| | - Jan P Langenberg
- TNO Defence, Safety and Security, Dep. CBRN Protection, Lange Kleiweg 137, Rijswijk 2288GJ, the Netherlands
| | - Arian C van Asten
- van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, Amsterdam 1090GD, the Netherlands; CLHC, Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, Amsterdam 1090GD, the Netherlands
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Martinez J, Gonyea J, Zaney ME, Kahl J, Moore DM. The evolution of fentanyl-related substances: Prevalence and drug concentrations in postmortem biological specimens at the Miami-Dade Medical Examiner Department. J Anal Toxicol 2024; 48:104-110. [PMID: 38123469 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkad089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Since 2014, the Miami-Dade Medical Examiner Department (MDME) has observed a drastic increase in the number of fentanyl and fentanyl analog (fentanyl-related substances (FRSs)) fatalities since its introduction into the heroin and cocaine supply. Due to the prevalence of FRS in Miami-Dade County, the MDME toxicology laboratory began documenting each case in which fentanyl and/or a fentanyl analog was identified. Additional information monitored included demographics (age, race and sex), other drugs identified, cause of death (COD) and manner of death (MOD). From 2014 to 2022, the MDME toxicology laboratory analyzed a total of 1,989 cases that tested positive for FRS, of which 1,707 had detectable and/or quantifiable fentanyl concentrations in postmortem cases. The majority of decedents were white males (62%), and the predominant age range was 25-34 years. The most prevalent MOD was accident (93%) with the most common COD listed as acute combined drug toxicity of fentanyl in combination with other drugs (79%). Other drugs found in combination with fentanyl included heroin, cocaine (most prevalent), synthetic cathinones and ethanol. Of all FRS cases, 9% (170 cases) involved fentanyl alone as a COD, while 2% (38 cases) included only fentanyl analogs. Fentanyl concentrations ranged from 1.0 to 1,646 ng/mL in peripheral blood, 1.2 to 449 ng/mL in central blood, 3.2 to 28 ng/mL in donor blood (obtained during tissue harvesting), 1.1 to 108 ng/mL in antemortem blood, 8.5 to 1,130 ng/g in liver and 2.0 to 471 ng/g in brain. Drug concentrations were also reported for an additional eight fentanyl analogs. Considering the prevalence, high potency and constant evolution of FRS, it is important to continuously monitor trends and report drug concentrations in complex medical examiner casework in an effort to educate pathologists, law enforcement and local governments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyn Martinez
- Miami-Dade Medical Examiner Department, Toxicology Laboratory, 1851 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Jennifer Gonyea
- Miami-Dade Medical Examiner Department, Toxicology Laboratory, 1851 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - M Elizabeth Zaney
- Miami-Dade Medical Examiner Department, Toxicology Laboratory, 1851 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Joseph Kahl
- Miami-Dade Medical Examiner Department, Toxicology Laboratory, 1851 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Diane M Moore
- Miami-Dade Medical Examiner Department, Toxicology Laboratory, 1851 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL 33136, USA
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Syrjanen R, Schumann JL, Lyons T, McKinnon G, Hodgson SE, Abouchedid R, Gerostamoulos D, Koutsogiannis Z, Fitzgerald J, Greene SL. A risk-based approach to community illicit drug toxicosurveillance: operationalisation of the Emerging Drugs Network of Australia - Victoria (EDNAV) project. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2023; 122:104251. [PMID: 37952318 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The Emerging Drugs Network of Australia - Victoria (EDNAV) project is a newly established toxicosurveillance network that collates clinical and toxicological data from patients presenting to emergency departments with illicit drug related toxicity in a centralised clinical registry. Data are obtained from a network of sixteen public hospital emergency departments across Victoria, Australia (13 metropolitan and three regional). Comprehensive toxicological analysis of a purposive sample of 22 patients is conducted each week, with reporting of results to key alcohol and other drug stakeholders. This paper describes the overarching framework and risk-based approach developed within Victoria to assess drug intelligence from EDNAV toxicosurveillance. METHODS Risk management principles from other spheres of public health surveillance and healthcare clinical governance have been adapted to the EDNAV framework with the aim of facilitating a consistent and evidence-based approach to assessing weekly drug intelligence. The EDNAV Risk Register was reviewed over the first two years of EDNAV project operation (September 2020 - August 2022), with examples of eight risk assessments detailed to demonstrate the process from signal detection to public health intervention. RESULTS A total of 1112 patient presentations were documented in the EDNAV Clinical Registry, with 95 signals of concern entered into the EDNAV Risk Register over the two-year study period. The eight examples examined in further detail included suspected drug adulteration (novel opioid adulterated heroin, para-methoxymethamphetamine adulterated 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)), drug substitution (25B-NBOH sold as lysergic acid diethylamide, five benzodiazepine-type new psychoactive substances in a single tablet, protonitazene sold as ketamine), new drug detection (N,N-dimethylpentylone), contamination (unreported acetylfentanyl) and a fatality subsequent to MDMA use. A total of four public Drug Alerts were issued over this period. CONCLUSIONS Continued toxicosurveillance efforts are paramount to characterising the changing landscape of illicit drug use. This work demonstrates a functional model for risk assessment of illicit drug toxicosurveillance, underpinned by analytical confirmation and evidence-based decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekka Syrjanen
- Monash University, Department of Forensic Medicine, Southbank, Victoria, Australia; Austin Health, Victorian Poisons Information Centre, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jennifer L Schumann
- Monash University, Department of Forensic Medicine, Southbank, Victoria, Australia; Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, Toxicology Department, Southbank, Victoria, Australia; Monash University, Monash Addiction Research Centre, Frankston, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tom Lyons
- The Department of Health, Alcohol and Other Drugs Strategy Team, Victorian State Government, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ginny McKinnon
- The Department of Health, Alcohol and Other Drugs Strategy Team, Victorian State Government, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sarah E Hodgson
- Austin Health, Victorian Poisons Information Centre, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia; Austin Health, Emergency Department, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
| | - Rachelle Abouchedid
- Austin Health, Victorian Poisons Information Centre, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia; Bendigo Health, Emergency Department, Bendigo Hospital, Bendigo, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dimitri Gerostamoulos
- Monash University, Department of Forensic Medicine, Southbank, Victoria, Australia; Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, Toxicology Department, Southbank, Victoria, Australia
| | - Zeff Koutsogiannis
- Austin Health, Victorian Poisons Information Centre, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia; Austin Health, Emergency Department, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia; The University of Melbourne, Melbourne Medical School, Department of Critical Care, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - John Fitzgerald
- The University of Melbourne, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Shaun L Greene
- Austin Health, Victorian Poisons Information Centre, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia; Austin Health, Emergency Department, Austin Hospital, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia; The University of Melbourne, Melbourne Medical School, Department of Critical Care, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
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Valdez CA, Rosales JA, Vu AK, Leif RN. Detection and confirmation of fentanyls in high clay-content soil by electron ionization gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Forensic Sci 2023; 68:2138-2152. [PMID: 37568257 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Detection of illicit drugs in the environment, particularly in soils, often suggests the present or past location of a clandestine production center for these substances. Thus, development of efficient methods for the analysis and detection of these chemicals is of paramount importance in the field of chemical forensics. In this work, a method involving the extraction and retrospective confirmation of fentanyl, acetylfentanyl, thiofentanyl, and acetylthiofentanyl using trichloroethoxycarbonylation chemistry in a high clay-content soil is presented. The soil was spiked separately with each fentanyl at two concentrations (1 and 10 μg/g) and their extraction accomplished using ethyl acetate and aqueous NH4 OH (pH ~ 11.4) with extraction recoveries ranging from ~56% to 82% for the high-concentration (10 μg/g) samples while ranging from ~68% to 83% for the low-concentration (1 μg/g) samples. After their extraction, residues containing each fentanyl were reacted with 2,2,2-trichloroethoxycarbonyl chloride (Troc-Cl) to generate two unique and predictable products from each opioid that can be used to retrospectively confirm their presence and identity using EI-GC-MS. The method's limit of detection (MDL/LOD) for Troc-norfentanyl and Troc-noracetylfentanyl were estimated to be 29.4 and 31.8 ng/mL in the organic extracts. In addition, the method's limit of quantitation for Troc-norfentanyl and Troc-noracetylfentanyl were determined to be 88.2 and 95.5 ng/mL, respectively. Collectively, the results presented herein strengthen the use of chloroformate chemistry as an additional chemical tool to confirm the presence of these highly toxic and lethal substances in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Valdez
- Global Security Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| | - José A Rosales
- Global Security Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- NNSA-MSIIP Summer Fellow, University of Texas, El Paso, Texas, USA
| | - Alexander K Vu
- Global Security Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| | - Roald N Leif
- Global Security Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
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Toske SG, Mitchell JR, Myslinski JM, Walz AJ, Guthrie DB, Guest EM, Corbett CA, Lockhart ED. Organic impurity profiling of fentanyl samples associated with recent clandestine laboratory methods. J Forensic Sci 2023; 68:1470-1483. [PMID: 37203260 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Nearly a decade ago, fentanyl reappeared in the United States illicit drug market. In the years since, overdose deaths have continued to rise as well as the amount of fentanyl seized by law enforcement agencies. Research surrounding fentanyl production has been beneficial to regulatory actions and understanding illicit fentanyl production. In 2017, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) began collecting seized fentanyl samples from throughout the United States to track purity, adulteration trends, and synthetic impurity profiles for intelligence purposes. The appearance of a specific organic impurity, phenethyl-4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine (phenethyl-4-ANPP) indicates a shift in fentanyl production from the traditional Siegfried and Janssen routes to the Gupta-patent route. Through a collaboration between the DEA and the US Army's Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center (DEVCOM CBC), the synthesis of fentanyl was investigated via six synthetic routes, and the impurity profiles were compared to those of seized samples. The synthetic impurity phenethyl-4-ANPP was reliably observed in the Gupta-patent route published in 2013, and its structure was confirmed through isolation and structure elucidation. Organic impurity profiling results for illicit fentanyl samples seized in late 2021 have indicated yet another change in processing with the appearance of the impurity ethyl-4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine (ethyl-4-ANPP). Through altering reagents traditionally used in the Gupta-patent route, the formation of this impurity was determined to occur through a modification of the route as originally described in the Gupta patent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven G Toske
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | | | - James M Myslinski
- Research and Technology Directorate, Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center, U.S. Army, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew J Walz
- Research and Technology Directorate, Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center, U.S. Army, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, USA
| | - David B Guthrie
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Guest
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | - Charlotte A Corbett
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | - Emily D Lockhart
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
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Leary PE, Kizzire KL, Chan Chao R, Niedziejko M, Martineau N, Kammrath BW. Evaluation of portable gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for the analysis of fentanyl, fentanyl analogs, and other synthetic opioids. J Forensic Sci 2023; 68:1601-1614. [PMID: 37470264 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Potent synthetic opioids including fentanyl and its analogs are frequently encountered in the field and require detection and identification by first responders to maintain the safety of drug abusers, first responders, health-care providers, and the public at large. Due to the low concentration at which these substances may be encountered and the complicating matrices within which they may be dispersed, the use of portable gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for their identification in the field offers great potential value. This research established that portable GC-MS is a useful method for the detection and identification of a large number of synthetic opioids, especially fentanyl and its analogs. In this study, 250 synthetic opioids and related substances including 210 fentanyl analogs were analyzed using portable GC-MS. It was concluded that 225 of the 250 (90.0%) opioids analyzed were successfully detected onboard at the time of analysis and identified as either the substance (55.2%) or an analog (34.8%). These outcomes have equivalent benefit for the field analysis of illicit drugs due to both initiating the same subsequent actions by first responders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Brooke W Kammrath
- University of New Haven, West Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Henry C. Lee Institute of Forensic Science, West Haven, Connecticut, USA
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Mörén L, Lindén P, Larsson A, Östin A. The potential of Direct Analysis in Real Time as a forensic tool for carfentanil profiling. Forensic Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2022.100449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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8
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Classification of carfentanil synthesis methods based on chemical impurity profile. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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9
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Feisthauer E, Farrugia A, Ameline A, Gheddar L, Arbouche N, Raul JS, Kintz P. Intérêt de rechercher la 4-ANPP dans les milieux biologiques comme marqueur d’une exposition au fentanyl ou à un analogue structural. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2021.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Sisco E, Burns A, Moorthy A. Development and evaluation of a synthetic opioid targeted gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method. J Forensic Sci 2021; 66:2369-2380. [PMID: 34459514 PMCID: PMC9922096 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
As seized drug casework becomes increasingly complex due to the continued prevalence of emerging drugs, laboratories are often looking for new analytical approaches including developing methods for the analysis of specific compounds classes. Recent efforts have focused on the development of targeted gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) confirmation methods to compliment the information-rich screening results produced by techniques like direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry (DART-MS). In this work, a method for the confirmation of synthetic opioids and related compounds was developed and evaluated. An 11-component test solution was used to develop a method that focused on minimizing overlapping retention time acceptance windows and understanding the influence of instrument parameters on reproducibility and sensitivity. Investigated settings included column type, flow rate, temperature program, inlet temperature, source temperature, and tune type. Using a DB-200 column, a 35-min temperature ramped method was created. It was evaluated against a suite of 222 synthetic opioids and related compounds, and successfully differentiated all but four compound pairs based on nonoverlapping retention time acceptance windows or objectively different mass spectra. Compared to a general confirmatory method used in casework, the targeted method was up to 25 times more sensitive and provided at least a two-fold increase in retention time differences. Analysis of extracts from actual case samples successfully demonstrated utility of the method and showed no instance of carryover, although the high polarity column required wider retention time windows than other columns.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amber Burns
- Maryland State Police Forensic Sciences Division
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Hemme M, Fidder A, van der Riet-van Oeveren D, van der Schans MJ, Noort D. Mass spectrometric analysis of adducts of sulfur mustard analogues to human plasma proteins: approach towards chemical provenancing in biomedical samples. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 413:4023-4036. [PMID: 33903945 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-021-03354-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The primary aim of this study was to identify biomarkers of exposure to some so-called Schedule 1 sulfur mustard (HD) analogues, in order to facilitate and expedite their retrospective analysis in case of alleged use of such compounds. Since these HD analogues can be regarded as model compounds for possible impurities of HD formed during synthesis processes, the secondary aim was to explore to which extent these biomarkers can be used for chemical provenancing of HD in case biomedical samples are available. While the use of chemical attribution signatures (CAS) for neat chemicals or for environmental samples has been addressed quite frequently, the use of CAS for investigating impurities in biomedical samples has been addressed only scarcely. Human plasma was exposed to each of the five HD analogues. After pronase or proteinase K digestion of precipitated protein and sample work-up, the histidine (His) and tripeptide (CPF) adducts to proteins were analyzed, respectively. Adducts of the analogues could still be unambiguously identified next to the main HD adducts in processed plasma samples after exposure to HD mixed with each of the analogues, at a 1% level relative to HD. In conclusion, we have identified plasma protein adducts of a number of HD analogues, which can be used as biomarkers to assess an exposure to these Schedule 1 chemicals. We have shown that adducts of these analogues can still be analyzed after work-up of plasma samples which had been exposed to these analogues in a mixture with HD, supporting the hypothesis that biomedical sample analysis might be useful for chemical provenancing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Hemme
- Chemistry Department, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 6, 20146, Hamburg, Germany.,Department of CBRN Protection, TNO Defence, Safety & Security, P.O. Box 45, 2280 AA, Rijswijk, The Netherlands.,Bundeswehr Research Institute for Protective Technologies and NBC Protection (WIS), Humboldtstraße, 29633, Munster, Germany
| | - Alex Fidder
- Department of CBRN Protection, TNO Defence, Safety & Security, P.O. Box 45, 2280 AA, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | | | - Marcel J van der Schans
- Department of CBRN Protection, TNO Defence, Safety & Security, P.O. Box 45, 2280 AA, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Daan Noort
- Department of CBRN Protection, TNO Defence, Safety & Security, P.O. Box 45, 2280 AA, Rijswijk, The Netherlands.
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