Drug intelligence based on MDMA tablets data

75 years of forensic profiling: A critical review

The interest in characterization of drugs abused started in 1948 with the aim of determining the origin of opium. After 75 years there is still a great interest in this approach, called geo-profiling, chemical or forensic profiling in the following decades. Recently chemical attribution signatures (CAS) were proposed by the authors who studied "synthesis precursors and byproducts, impurities, degradation products, and metabolites in various biological matrices" of fentanyl. Forensic profiling evolved during these decades: new analytical approaches were tested and it was applied to more and more products, which threaten the health and security of citizens worldwide. In substances of natural origins (e.g. opium, cannabis and cocaine), it is possible to exploit the great variability of both elements and organic chemical compounds and to study chemical compounds such as reagents and solvents, by-products, and cutting agents used in the production chain. Profiles can be used to classify products from different seizures into groups of similar samples (tactical intelligence) or to determine the origin of samples (strategic intelligence). Chromatographic approaches coupled to mass spectrometry are very common to determine organic profiles, while elemental profiles are obtained by nuclear activation analysis, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry or ion beam analysis. A very important role in the field is played by isotope ratio analysis. Approaches to obtain forensic profiles are available also for chemical warfare agents, explosives, illegal medicines, doping agents, supplements, food. Chemometrics can be particularly useful to establish the authenticity of products and for the interpretation of large amount of forensic data. The future of forensic profiling is a challenge for forensic sciences. Organized crime is involved in the manufacturing of a large number of illegal products and forensic profiling is a very powerful tool to support the health of citizens and the administration of justice worldwide.

A systematic approach to the analysis of illicit drugs for DNA with an overview of the problems encountered

Due to the restricted nature of illicit drugs, it is difficult to conduct research surrounding the analysis of this drug material for any potential DNA in sufficient quantities acceptable for high numbers of replicates. Therefore, the current research available in peer reviewed journals thus far regarding analysing illicit drugs for DNA has been performed under varying experimental conditions, often using surrogate chemicals in place of illicit drugs. The data presented within this study originated from the analysis of genuine illicit drugs prepared both in controlled environments and those seized at the Australian border (and therefore from an uncontrolled environment) to determine if DNA can be obtained from this type of material. This study has been separated into three main parts (total n=114 samples): firstly, methamphetamine synthesised within a controlled environment was spiked with both saliva and trace DNA to determine the yield following DNA extraction; secondly, methamphetamine also synthesised in a controlled environment but on a larger scale was tested for the amount of DNA added incidentally throughout the synthesis, including the additional steps of recrystallising, homogenising and "cutting" the drug material to simulate preparation for distribution; and thirdly, the detection of human DNA within samples of cocaine and heroin seized at the Australian border. The DNA Fast Flow Microcon Device was utilised to concentrate all replicates from the same source into one combined extract to improve the DNA profiles for the samples where no DNA spiking occurred. Full STR profiles were successfully obtained from drug samples spiked with both saliva and trace DNA. Methamphetamine was present in the final DNA extracts and caused incompatibilities with the quantification of DNA using Qubit. The yields of DNA from drugs not spiked with DNA sources were much lower, resulting in 36 % of samples yielding alleles where all others did not. These results were not unexpected given these were realistic drug samples where the history of the drug material was unknown. This is the first study to obtain DNA profiles from genuine illicit drug material in both controlled and uncontrolled environments and indicates that the analysis of illicit drugs for DNA is an avenue worth pursuing to provide information which can in turn assist with disrupting the supply of these drugs. Given that DNA profiling is carried out worldwide using essentially the same systems as described within this study, the potential for impact is on a national and international scale.

Comparison of three DNA extraction methods tested on illicit drug-related powders

The detection of human DNA on and within illicit drug preparations is novel and a focus of current research. Previous studies have indicated that certain drug-related powders present in illicit drug preparations can interfere with downstream DNA analysis when directly added to the PCR. Therefore, it is important to determine if these drug-related powders are effectively removed during the DNA extraction or whether traces of powder remain to interfere with DNA processing. Three extraction methods were selected to assess their efficiency at removing drug-related powders for downstream processes using DNA from both saliva and touch depositions. This is the first study to compare efficiencies of DNA extraction methods from drug-related powders. The extraction methods compared were the DNA IQ™ System, the QIAamp® DNA Investigator Kit and the combination of a simple lysis step followed by use of the Microcon® DNA Fast Flow device. Saliva was added to dimethylsulfone (DMS), nitrostyrene and PROSOLV® tablet mixture to determine the effect of powder type (based on solubility). Saliva was also added to 0, 50, 200 and 400 mg of DMS to determine the effect of an increase in DMS quantity. Trace DNA was deposited onto DMS using a worn glove approach. These samples were re-tested six months post-DNA deposition and profiled for further comparisons. Ten replicates were conducted for each condition with five replicates of saliva positive controls per method (n = 255 samples). A subset of samples was chemically analysed to determine if DMS was present in the final DNA eluant. The readily soluble DMS did not interfere with any of the extraction methods at lower amounts, however increasing the DMS to 400 mg reduced the relative DNA yields using the Microcon® and Investigator methods. The tablet mixture reduced the relative DNA yield of all three methods, however the nitrostyrene (which was relatively insoluble) only reduced the relative DNA yield of the DNA IQ™. The Investigator method performed the best with the trace samples, followed by the Microcon® method and then the DNA IQ™. DMS was detected in all extracts chemically analysed from the DNA IQ™ and Microcon®, whereas only one sample tested from the Investigator kit contained DMS in the extract and was in a relatively low amount compared to the other samples. Not one kit outperformed the others in all comparisons, however the Investigator kit was the most efficient overall at optimising the DNA yield whilst also removing the powders more effectively.

Digital forensic intelligence for illicit drug analysis in forensic investigations

In forensic investigations, forensic intelligence is required for illicit drug profiling in order to allow police officers and law enforcements to recognize crime developments and adjust their actions. In the present paper, we propose a novel framework for Digital Forensic Drug Intelligence (DFDI) by fusing digital forensic and drug profiling data through intelligent cycles, where a targeted and iterative collection of evidence from diverse sources is a core step in the process of drug profiling. Drug profiling data combined with digital data from seized devices collected, examined, and analyzed will allow authorities to generate valuable information about illicit drug trafficking routes and manufacturing. Such data can be stored in seized illicit drug databases to build in an intelligent way, all findings, hypotheses and recommendations, allowing law enforcement to make decisions. Our framework will potentially provide a better understanding of profiling, trafficking and distribution of illicit drugs.

What is the future of illicit drug profiling in Switzerland? Condemned to disappear or forgotten treasure

Illicit drug profiling bears a long history. Developments in the field from mid-90s have led to several international profiling programs. Several countries have put their efforts to develop and implement the routine use of illicit drug profiling in the investigation and prosecution of illicit drug-related crimes. For more than 20 years, the School of Criminal Sciences (ESC) at the University of Lausanne has, through its illicit drug expertise laboratory, played a main role in promoting the use of illicit drug profiling. In Switzerland, there is no national illicit drug profiling practice and the ESC laboratory is the only one offering such service. However, only a limited number of Swiss jurisdictions send regularly all or part of their seized specimens for analysis to the ESC laboratory. Profiling results are furnished to investigators and prosecutors regardless if they have been requested or not and are stored in a database with limited contextual information with no further data treatment. In 2020, the interruption of a project intended to develop and implement an intercantonal database gathering traditional police data, forensic data (e.g., DNA, fingerprints, etc.), and physical and chemical links, to produce intelligence and support investigation, led to the fundamental question: Is illicit drug profiling in Switzerland condemned to disappear or is it a forgotten treasure, a neglected approach that deserves to be revalued? This paper reports the Swiss situation regarding illicit drug profiling practices and discusses some factors that are thought to impact its use in day-to-day work.

Illicit drug profiling practices in Finland: An exploratory study about end users' perceptions

Illicit drug profiling (i.e. chemical and/or physical profiling) to compare and relate illicit drugs samples has been actively used in routine case work at the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) in Finland. This preliminary and exploratory work reviews NBI's illicit drug profiling practices. Particular emphasis is put on communication of forensic results and how the NBI has promoted the use of forensic data in an intelligence perspective by establishing a case coordination service. Moreover, our study evaluates the comprehension, integration and usefulness of illicit drug profiling from end users' point of view by means of an online survey and face-to-face interviews. Findings are compared with theoretical aspects as described in literature. Results show that in the Finnish context illicit drug profiling is used and useful in the investigation and in court. From end users' perspective, real practical relevance relies in its use as intelligence during the investigation. However, to be truly useful, illicit drug profiling results must be communicated promptly during the investigation, with sufficient clarity and interpreted correctly by end users. Factors influencing the integration of illicit drug profiling in the forensic process are addressed.

Precursors and Prices

Few analyses of basic elements of the synthetic drug market have been conducted, particularly in regard to its structural features. Synthetic drug’s relatively recent classification as an illicit substance, coupled with its distinct clandestine characteristics, has hindered the development of reliable assessments of the market’s structural features. Using information derived from 365 seized synthetic drugs, this study aims to reliably examine the structural attributes of Quebec’s synthetic drug market by merging two approaches: drug composition and economic analysis. Findings for the drug composition analysis indicate that the market is composed of a high number of small structures, indicating a competitive and decentralized market. Providing complementary information, the economic analysis revealed that differential production costs and relations between traffickers influence price variations, depending on the region. These results emphasize the need to design policies that account for regional differences as well as reflect the competitive nature of the market.

Forensic profiling of sassafras oils based on comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography

Safrole, the main compound in the essential oil of several plants of the Laurel family (Lauraceae), and its secondary product piperonylmethylketone are the predominantly used precursors for the illicit synthesis of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) which is, in turn, the most common active ingredient in Ecstasy tablets. Analytical methods with adequate capacity to identify links and origin of precursors, such as safrole, provide valuable information for drug-related police intelligence. Authentic sassafras oil samples from police seizures were subjected to comparative analysis based on their chemical profiles obtained by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-TOFMS). The enhanced separation power and increased sensitivity of GC × GC allowed for the detection of minor compounds present in the essential oils which were of particular interest in case of very pure samples whose impurity profiles were not very pronounced. Discrimination of such samples was still possible even in the absence of characteristic main compounds.

Development of microwave-assisted extraction procedure for organic impurity profiling of seized 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)

Organic impurity profiling of seized 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) tablets aims to link tablets to common production sources. Conventionally, organic impurities are extracted from tablets using a liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) procedure prior to analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In this research, the development of an alternative microwave-assisted extraction/headspace solid-phase microextraction (MAE/HS-SPME) procedure is described. The optimal procedure used phosphate buffer (1 M, pH 8), with an HS-SPME extraction temperature of 70 °C for 40 min, using a divinylbenzene/Carboxen™/polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/CAR/PDMS) fiber. Impurities were extracted from seized MDMA exhibits using the MAE/HS-SPME procedure, as well as HS-SPME alone, and a conventional LLE procedure. The HS-SPME procedure was deemed to be the most practical because of the affordability and need for less analyst involvement. Although the LLE was limited in the number of impurities extracted, the procedure is still useful for the extraction of less volatile impurities that are not extracted by HS-SPME.

Evaluation method for linking methamphetamine seizures using stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions: a complementary study with impurity profiling

Drug profiling, extraction of physical and/or chemical profiles from abused drug samples, is useful for inferring and characterizing links between samples originating from the same and different seizures, and supports drug crime investigations. We describe an evaluation method for linking methamphetamine (MA) seizures using stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions concurrently with gas chromatographic impurity profiling, which is one of the major methods of drug profiling. Several sets of MA seized in Japan, whose investigative information indicated linkages, were analyzed. The impurity profile of each set of seizures was quite similar and hierarchical cluster analysis showed a sample classification that was relatively consistent with the investigative information. The stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions of the MA seizures varied between -29.40 and -24.90 (delta(13)C) and -2.29 and 5.94 (delta(15)N), respectively. In the delta(13)C-delta(15)N graph, MA seizures were classified into seven groups, probably reflecting different origins. The size of the cluster in the isotopic-composition graph was determined by pooled standard deviations (s(p)), the pooled estimates of measurement uncertainty. The sizes of the clusters were less than 6s(p) and the linkages between the MA seizures from the isotopic compositions were consistent with the impurity profiling and investigative information. The results showed that complementary use of stable-isotopic compositions with impurity profiling provides useful information for evaluating the links between seizures.