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Trif C, Harpaz D, Eltzov E, Parcharoen Y, Pechyen C, Marks RS. Detection of Cannabinoids in Oral Fluid Specimens as the Preferred Biological Matrix for a Point-of-Care Biosensor Diagnostic Device. BIOSENSORS 2024; 14:126. [PMID: 38534233 DOI: 10.3390/bios14030126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
An increasing number of countries have started to decriminalize or legalize the consumption of cannabis for recreational and medical purposes. The active ingredients in cannabis, termed cannabinoids, affect multiple functions in the human body, including coordination, motor skills, memory, response time to external stimuli, and even judgment. Cannabinoids are a unique class of terpeno-phenolic compounds, with 120 molecules discovered so far. There are certain situations when people under the influence of cannabis may be a risk to themselves or the public safety. Over the past two decades, there has been a growing research interest in detecting cannabinoids from various biological matrices. There is a need to develop a rapid, accurate, and reliable method of detecting cannabinoids in oral fluid as it can reveal the recent intake in comparison with urine specimens, which only show a history of consumption. Significant improvements are continuously made in the analytical formats of various technologies, mainly concerning improving their sensitivity, miniaturization, and making them more user-friendly. Additionally, sample collection and pretreatment have been extensively studied, and specific devices for collecting oral fluid specimens have been perfected to allow rapid and effective sample collection. This review presents the recent findings regarding the use of oral fluid specimens as the preferred biological matrix for cannabinoid detection in a point-of-care biosensor diagnostic device. A critical review is presented, discussing the findings from a collection of review and research articles, as well as publicly available data from companies that manufacture oral fluid screening devices. Firstly, the various conventional methods used to detect cannabinoids in biological matrices are presented. Secondly, the detection of cannabinoids using point-of-care biosensors is discussed, emphasizing oral fluid specimens. This review presents the current pressing technological challenges and highlights the gaps where new technological solutions can be implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Călin Trif
- Avram and Stella Goldstein-Goren Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Dorin Harpaz
- Institute of Biochemistry, Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Fruit, Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel
| | - Evgeni Eltzov
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Fruit, Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel
| | - Yardnapar Parcharoen
- Chulabhorn International College of Medicine, Thammasat University, Klong Luang 12120, Pathum Thani, Thailand
| | - Chiravoot Pechyen
- Center of Excellence in Modern Technology and Advanced Manufacturing for Medical Innovation, Thammasat University, Klong Luang 12120, Pathum Thani, Thailand
- Department of Materials and Textile Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Klong Luang 12120, Pathum Thani, Thailand
| | - Robert S Marks
- Avram and Stella Goldstein-Goren Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
- The Ilse Katz Center for Meso and Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
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Lesne E, Muñoz-Bartual M, Esteve-Turrillas FA. Determination of synthetic hallucinogens in oral fluids by microextraction by packed sorbent and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2023:10.1007/s00216-023-04751-2. [PMID: 37219582 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04751-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A fast and simple procedure based on microextraction by packed sorbent (MEPS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has been developed for the simultaneous quantification of 28 synthetic hallucinogens in oral fluids, including lysergic acid diethylamide and substances from NBOMe, NBOH, NBF, 2C, and substituted amphetamine categories. Extraction conditions such as type of sorbent, sample pH, number of charge/discharge cycles, and elution volume were studied. Hallucinogenic compounds were extracted from oral fluid samples using C18 MEPS, loading with 100 μL sample (adjusted to pH 7) in 3 cycles, washing with 100 μL deionized water, and eluting with 50 μL methanol in 1 cycle, giving quantitative recoveries and no significant matrix effects. Limits of detection from 0.09 to 1.22 μg L-1; recoveries from 80 to 129% performed in spiked oral fluid samples at 20, 50, and 100 μg L-1; and high precision with relative standard deviations lower than 9% were obtained. The proposed methodology was demonstrated to be appropriate for the simple and sensitive determination of NBOMe derivates and other synthetic hallucinogenic substances in oral fluid samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan Lesne
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, 50th Dr. Moliner St., 46100, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Miguel Muñoz-Bartual
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, 50th Dr. Moliner St., 46100, Burjassot, Spain
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3
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Pascali JP, Dagoli S, Antonioni M, Facetti O, Anzillotti L, Calò L, Affini GF, Cantarelli B, Cecchi R. Oral fluid analysis to monitor recent exposure to synthetic cannabinoids in a high-risk subpopulation. J Forensic Sci 2022; 67:1932-1937. [PMID: 35642776 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Among novel psychoactive substances, synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRA) seem to have the widest diffusion in the population with no limitation to any particular demographic group. Information on drug consumption relies mostly on anonymized surveys and less on clinical or analytical data; notwithstanding, the huge efforts constantly made to enroll subjects to gather epidemiological data. In the present study, we collected 66 oral fluid samples from volunteers in a drug rehabilitation center in 2019 and early 2020. A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method previously developed and validated by our Unit was applied to detect SCRA (n = 10) in oral fluid. Results proved the presence of synthetic cannabinoids at a positivity rate of almost 20%, with detection frequency HU211(5/13) > UR144/JWH122 (3/13) > JWH019/JWH081/AM2201 (1/13). Concentrations were in the range < LOQ -0.36 ng/ml. Synthetic cannabinoids consumption had not been declared by any volunteer. This study enabled for the unprecedent detection of synthetic cannabinoids use in the territory of Parma (Italy) in a high-risk subpopulation. The identified SCRA proved the persistence into the market of the "first-generation" JWH family into the Italian territory and the marketing of relatively new ones (AM-2201). Public health consequences represented by NPS consumption are still scarce; therefore, further studies are needed to understand the real diffusion in the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer P Pascali
- Legal medicine and toxicology, Department of Cardiologic, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Sara Dagoli
- Legal Medicine, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | | | - Olivia Facetti
- Service for Pathological Dependencies (SerDp), Parma, Italy
| | - Luca Anzillotti
- Legal Medicine, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Luca Calò
- Legal Medicine, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | | | | | - Rossana Cecchi
- Legal Medicine, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
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4
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Pascual-Caro S, Borrull F, Calull M, Aguilar C. Recent chromatographic and electrophoretic based methods for determining drugs of abuse in urine and oral fluid: A review from 2018 to June 2021. Trends Analyt Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2022.116705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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5
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Gish A, Dumestre-Toulet V, Richeval C, Wiart JF, Hakim F, Allorge D, Gaulier JM. Trends in pharmaceutical design of new psychoactive substances detected in oral fluid of drivers around a music festival in south-west France: comparison 2019/2017. Curr Pharm Des 2022; 28:1245-1249. [PMID: 35585812 DOI: 10.2174/1381612828666220517160545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE new psychoactive substance use (NPS) is a reality in France, including among drivers. This work aims (i) to report pharmaceutical design of NPS detected in oral fluid (OF) from drivers initially screened for drugs around a music festival in 2019, and (ii) to compare obtained results with those of a previous similar study carried out in 2017 in the same situation (and the same music festival) and according to the same methodology. METHODS OF specimens were recovered from the used devices of the salivary immunochemical tests used by the police during the controls carried out at the entering and leaving the festival. These OF were analyzed using a liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry and high-resolution mass spectrometry methods using mass spectra libraries of approximately 1700 substances including (in 2020) more than 650 NPS and metabolites. RESULTS NPS were detected in 14 out of the 265 collected OF specimens. Ten NPS were identified (number of identification): APINACA (1), AB-Chminaca (1), 5F-AMB (1), 5F-PB-22 (5), 2C-D (1), methoxetamine (2), ketamine (1), x-CMC (1), 4-MEC (2), ethylone (2). The prevalence of NPS detection in OF (5.2%) is in the same order than the observed one in 2017 (6.8%) but these results are marked by the majority and increasing proportion of synthetic cannabinoids (47% of identified NPS in 2019 vs 25% in 2017), an increase also in the proportion of cathinone derivatives (29% in 2019 vs 6 % in 2017), and a decrease in cyclohexanones (17% in 2019 vs 43% in 2017). CONCLUSION these pharmaceutical design trends (2019 vs 2017) observed in a population of drivers around a music festival seem to reflect those that can be seen in more general populations in France, with probably a rise in the consumption of synthetic cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandr Gish
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille, France
| | | | - Camille Richeval
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille, France.,Univ. Lille, EA 4483 - IMPECS - IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, Lille, France
| | | | - Florian Hakim
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille, France.,Univ. Lille, EA 4483 - IMPECS - IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, Lille, France
| | - Delphine Allorge
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille, France.,Univ. Lille, EA 4483 - IMPECS - IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, Lille, France
| | - Jean-Michel Gaulier
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille, France.,Univ. Lille, EA 4483 - IMPECS - IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, Lille, France
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6
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Nadal-Gratacós N, Lleixà E, Gibert-Serramià M, Estrada-Tejedor R, Berzosa X, Batllori X, Pubill D, Camarasa J, Escubedo E, López-Arnau R. Neuropsychopharmacology of Emerging Drugs of Abuse: meta- and para-Halogen-Ring-Substituted α-PVP (“flakka”) Derivatives. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23042226. [PMID: 35216339 PMCID: PMC8876800 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23042226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Changes in the molecular structure of synthetic cathinones has led to an increase in the number of novel emerging drugs in the illicit drug market at an unprecedented rate. Unfortunately, little is known about the neuropsychopharmacology of recently emerged halogen-substituted α-PVP derivatives. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the role of para- and meta-halogen (F-, Cl-, and Br-) substitutions on the in vitro, in silico, and in vivo effects of α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP) derivatives. HEK293 cells expressing the human dopamine or serotonin transporter (hDAT and hSERT) were used for the uptake inhibition and transporter affinity assays. Molecular docking was used to model the interaction mechanism against DAT. Swiss CD-1 mice were used for the horizontal locomotor activity, open field test, and conditioned place preference paradigm. All compounds demonstrated potent DA uptake inhibition and higher DAT selectivity than cocaine. Meta-substituted cathinones showed higher DAT/SERT ratios than their para- analogs, which correlates with an increased psychostimulant effect in vivo and with different meta- and para-in silico interactions at DAT. Moreover, all compounds induced rewarding and acute anxiogenic effects in mice. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates the role of meta- and para-halogen substitutions in the mechanism of action and provides the first evidence of the rewarding and anxiety-like properties of halogenated α-PVP derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Núria Nadal-Gratacós
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (N.N.-G.); (E.L.); (M.G.-S.); (D.P.); (J.C.)
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, 08017 Barcelona, Spain; (R.E.-T.); (X.B.); (X.B.)
| | - Esther Lleixà
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (N.N.-G.); (E.L.); (M.G.-S.); (D.P.); (J.C.)
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, 08017 Barcelona, Spain; (R.E.-T.); (X.B.); (X.B.)
| | - Mónica Gibert-Serramià
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (N.N.-G.); (E.L.); (M.G.-S.); (D.P.); (J.C.)
| | - Roger Estrada-Tejedor
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, 08017 Barcelona, Spain; (R.E.-T.); (X.B.); (X.B.)
| | - Xavier Berzosa
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, 08017 Barcelona, Spain; (R.E.-T.); (X.B.); (X.B.)
| | - Xavier Batllori
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, 08017 Barcelona, Spain; (R.E.-T.); (X.B.); (X.B.)
| | - David Pubill
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (N.N.-G.); (E.L.); (M.G.-S.); (D.P.); (J.C.)
| | - Jordi Camarasa
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (N.N.-G.); (E.L.); (M.G.-S.); (D.P.); (J.C.)
| | - Elena Escubedo
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (N.N.-G.); (E.L.); (M.G.-S.); (D.P.); (J.C.)
- Correspondence: (E.E.); (R.L.-A.); Tel.: +34-9-3402-4531 (E.E.)
| | - Raúl López-Arnau
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (N.N.-G.); (E.L.); (M.G.-S.); (D.P.); (J.C.)
- Correspondence: (E.E.); (R.L.-A.); Tel.: +34-9-3402-4531 (E.E.)
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Orazietti V, Basile G, Giorgetti R, Giorgetti A. Effects of synthetic cannabinoids on psychomotor, sensory and cognitive functions relevant for safe driving. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:998828. [PMID: 36226105 PMCID: PMC9548613 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.998828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Recreational use of Synthetic Cannabinoids (SCs), one of the largest groups of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS), has increased globally over the past few years. Driving is a structured process requiring the cooperation of several cognitive and psychomotor functions, organized in different levels of complexity. Each of these functions can be affected when Driving Under the Influence (DUI) of SCs. In order to reduce the likelihood of SC-related road accidents, it is essential to understand which areas of psychomotor performance are most affected by these substances, as well as the severity of impairment. For this purpose, a multiple database- literature review of recent experimental studies in humans and animals regarding the psychomotor effects of SCs has been performed. Despite the many limitations connected to experimental studies on humans, results showed a consistency between animal and human data. SCs appear to impair psychomotor performance in humans, affecting different domains related to safe driving even at low doses. Cases of DUI of SC have been repeatedly reported, although the exact prevalence is likely to be underestimated due to current analytical and interpretative issues. For this reason, an accurate physical examination performed by trained and experienced personnel has a primary role in recognizing signs of impairment in case of strong suspicion of SC consumption. The identification of a suspected case should be followed by reliable laboratory examination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasco Orazietti
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University of Ancona, Ancona, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Basile
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Galeazzi Orthopedics Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Raffaele Giorgetti
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University of Ancona, Ancona, Italy
| | - Arianna Giorgetti
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University of Ancona, Ancona, Italy.,Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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8
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Gavai AK, Bouzembrak Y, van den Bulk LM, Liu N, van Overbeeke LF, van den Heuvel LJ, Mol H, Marvin HJ. Artificial intelligence to detect unknown stimulants from scientific literature and media reports. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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9
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Dumestre-Toulet V, Richeval C, Wiart JF, Gish A, Humbert L, Nachon-Phanithavong M, Allorge D, Gaulier JM. Garorock, 2 ans après : comparaison des consommations de nouveaux produits de synthèse de conducteurs « festivaliers » dans le sud-ouest en 2017 et 2019. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2021.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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10
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A comprehensive UHPLC-MS/MS screening method for the analysis of 98 New Psychoactive Substances and related compounds in human hair. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2021; 205:114310. [PMID: 34391138 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2021.114310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 07/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In this study, a rapid liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method has been developed and validated for the targeted analysis of 98 New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) from the hair matrix. The monitored compounds included various chemical classes (7 phenethylamines, 10 tryptamines, 18 cathinones, 24 synthetic opioids, and 38 synthetic cannabinoids) with emphasis given to newly emerged NPS. The method employed a direct extraction process through the incubation of hair samples (25 mg) and internal standards with M3® reagent at 100 °C for 60 min, followed by extract purification through acid and basic liquid-liquid micro-extraction (LLME). Extracted compounds were analyzed through LC-MS/MS system operating in multiple reaction monitoring mode. NPS were separated in 9.5 min with a Poroshell 120 EC-C18 column (2.7 μm, 4.6 × 50 mm) using a gradient eluting mobile phase composed of water and acetonitrile/water (95:5) both containing 0.1 % of formic acid. The developed and validated method shows a good precision (≤ 15 %), linearity (R2 between 0.993 and 0.999), selectivity, and sensitivity (LOD: 0.6-10.3 pg mg-1 and LOQ: 2.1-34.4 pg mg-1). The method showed also reduced matrix effect and acceptable recovery for most of the targeted compounds. Our results showed that this method is suitable for quantifying NPS in hair matrix and could be employed in the context of routine analyses in analytical laboratories.
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11
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Richeval C, Gish A, Hakim F, Nachon-Phanithavong M, Wiart JF, Humbert L, Allorge D, Gaulier JM. Prevalence of New Psychoactive Substances in Oral Fluid Samples from French Drivers: A Longitudinal Survey (2016-2020). J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:e20-e21. [PMID: 33978145 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Camille Richeval
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France.,EA 4483-IMPECS-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, University of Lille, Lille 59045, France
| | - Alexandr Gish
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France
| | - Florian Hakim
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France.,EA 4483-IMPECS-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, University of Lille, Lille 59045, France
| | | | | | - Luc Humbert
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France
| | - Delphine Allorge
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France.,EA 4483-IMPECS-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, University of Lille, Lille 59045, France
| | - Jean-Michel Gaulier
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France.,EA 4483-IMPECS-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, University of Lille, Lille 59045, France
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12
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Arango E, Toriello A, Rosario Z, Cooper G. Increasing Prevalence of Ketamine in Drivers in New York City Including the Identification of 2-Fluoro-Deschloroketamine. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:799-806. [PMID: 34050644 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ketamine is a dissociative anesthetic used in veterinary and human medicine since the 1970s. Its clinical use has expanded to control of seizures, pre-hospital emergency medical services (EMS), and is finding new purpose as an analgesic alternative and antidepressant. Ketamine brings hope for effective management of chronic pain in the absence of opioids, and decreasing suicidal ideations, however, its persistence as a recreational drug for its hallucinogenic properties remains. In the wake of expanding medicinal purposes, the diversity of New York City's population was explored to better understand its misuse. This retrospective study looks at the prevalence of ketamine in driver fatalities over a period of 18 years (2003-2020) and cases involving suspected driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) over a period of 6 years (2015-2020). Ketamine was identified in 6 driver fatalities and in 47 DUID cases. None of the driver fatalities were suspected of ketamine misuse, due to administration either in hospital or EMS administration. In the DUID cases, an increasing trend was observed over the 6-year study period with 100% (N = 47) of the cases confirmed as non-hospital/non-EMS administered ketamine. Of the DUID cases, 94% were male, with the majority between the age of 21-39 years (85%) and were predominantly Hispanic (36%) and Asian (34%). Blood concentrations of ketamine ranged from 27 to > 2000 ng/mL with polydrug use prevalent. The most common drug classes detected in addition to ketamine were cannabinoids (38%), ethanol (32%), benzodiazepines (26%), cocaine (19%), and amphetamines/MDMA (15%). In 2019, 2-fluoro-deschloroketamine (2F-DCK) was identified in two cases for the first time. Despite its increased acceptance for mental health disorders, ketamine's persistence and misuse as a recreational drug remains and should continue to be monitored by relevant toxicological, clinical, and law enforcement communities along with emerging illicit ketamine analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elba Arango
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, NYC Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016
| | - Allison Toriello
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, NYC Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016
| | - Zoila Rosario
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, NYC Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016
| | - Gail Cooper
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, NYC Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016
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Trana AD, Mannocchi G, Pirani F, Maida NL, Gottardi M, Pichini S, Busardò FP. A Comprehensive HPLC-MS-MS Screening Method for 77 New Psychoactive Substances, 24 Classic Drugs and 18 Related Metabolites in Blood, Urine and Oral Fluid. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:769-783. [PMID: 32816015 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
To date, more than 800 molecules are classified as New Psychoactive Substances (NPS), and it is reported that this number increases every year. Whereas several cases of polydrug consumption that led to acute intoxication and death are reported, a lack of effective analytical screening method to detect NPS and classical drug of abuse in human matrices affects the prompt identification of the probable cause of intoxication in emergency department of hospitals. In this concern, a fast, simple and comprehensive high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS-MS) screening method to detect and quantify 77 NPS, 24 classic drugs and 18 related metabolites has been successfully developed and validated in blood, urine and oral fluid. A small volume (100 µL) of whole blood samples spiked with internal standard deuterated mixture was added to 70 µL of M3® buffer, and after precipitation of blood proteins, the supernatant was evaporated to dryness and reconstituted in 1 mL of mobile phase. Same volume (100 µL) of urine and oral fluid samples spiked with internal standard deuterated mix were only diluted with 500 µL of M3® reagent. One microliter of samples of each matrix was injected into HPLC-MS-MS equipment. The run time lasted 10 min with a gradient mobile phase. Mass spectrometric analysis was performed in positive ion multiple reaction monitoring mode. The method was linear for all analytes under investigation with a determination coefficient always better than 0.99. The calibration range for blood and oral fluid was from limits of quantification (LOQs) to 200 ng/mL, whereas that for urine was LOQs to 1000 ng/mL. Recovery and matrix effect were always higher than 80%, whereas intra-assay and inter-assay precision were always better than 19% and accuracy was always within 19% of target in every matrix. Applicability of the method was verified by analysis of samples from real cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annagiulia Di Trana
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, 60124, Ancona, Italy
| | - Giulio Mannocchi
- University of Camerino, Piazza Cavour 19/f, 62032, Camerino, Italy
| | - Filippo Pirani
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, 60124, Ancona, Italy
| | - Nunzia La Maida
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, 60124, Ancona, Italy
| | | | - Simona Pichini
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, 60124, Ancona, Italy
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Alexandridou A, Mouskeftara T, Raikos N, Gika HG. GC-MS analysis of underivatised new psychoactive substances in whole blood and urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2020; 1156:122308. [PMID: 33038866 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.122308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Herein a method was develop and validated for the detection and quantification of five new psychoactive substances (NPS) belonging to three categories: synthetic cathinones (mephedrone, 3,4-MDPV), opioids (AH-7921) and cannabinoids (JWH-018, AM-2201) by EI GC-MS. Target analytes were quantified in whole blood; in urine the same compounds plus methylone were detected. Liquid-liquid extraction by MTBE - butyl acetate (1:1, v/v) in blood and butyl acetate in urine was applied for the recovery of analytes, while no derivatization was necessary for their sensitive detection and quantification. The method showed good linearity for all analytes within a concentration range from 0.25 to 2 μg/mL for mephedrone, from 0.02 to 0.16 μg/mL for 3,4-MDPV and AH-7921 and from 0.005 to 0.04 μg/mL for JWH-018 and AM-2201. LOD ranged from 0.002 μg/mL (JWH-018 and AM-2201 in blood and urine), to 0.08 μg/mL (mephedrone in urine). LOQ in blood ranged from 0.005 μg/mL for JWH-018 and AM-2201 to 0.25 μg/mL for mephedrone. Accuracy was within acceptable limits with % bias ranging from +20% to -17.98% for intra-assay study and from +18.87% to -11.16% for inter-assay study. Precision was found to be between 2.60% and 17.17% (CV%) for intra-assay study and from 6.03% to 13.72% (CV%) for inter-assay study. An intra laboratory comparison provided proof of the method robustness. The developed method can be used for the reliable and fast quantification of five NPS in blood and the detection of six NPS in urine within the practice of a clinical or forensic toxicology laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Alexandridou
- Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Thomai Mouskeftara
- Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; BIOMIC_AUTH, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), Balkan Center B1.4, 10th Km Thessaloniki-Thermi Rd, P.O. Box 8318, GR 57001, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Raikos
- Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; BIOMIC_AUTH, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), Balkan Center B1.4, 10th Km Thessaloniki-Thermi Rd, P.O. Box 8318, GR 57001, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Helen G Gika
- Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; BIOMIC_AUTH, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), Balkan Center B1.4, 10th Km Thessaloniki-Thermi Rd, P.O. Box 8318, GR 57001, Thessaloniki, Greece
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15
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Fels H, Herzog J, Skopp G, Holzer A, Paul LD, Graw M, Musshoff F. Retrospective analysis of new psychoactive substances in blood samples of German drivers suspected of driving under the influence of drugs. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:1470-1476. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Helena Fels
- Forensic Toxicological Centre (FTC) Munich Munich Germany
| | | | - Gisela Skopp
- Forensic Toxicological Centre (FTC) Munich Munich Germany
| | - Anna Holzer
- Institute of Forensic Medicine Ludwig‐Maximilians‐University Munich Munich Germany
| | - Liane D. Paul
- Institute of Forensic Medicine Ludwig‐Maximilians‐University Munich Munich Germany
| | - Matthias Graw
- Institute of Forensic Medicine Ludwig‐Maximilians‐University Munich Munich Germany
| | - Frank Musshoff
- Forensic Toxicological Centre (FTC) Munich Munich Germany
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16
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Potential analytical methods for on-site oral drug test: Recent developments and applications. Trends Analyt Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2019.115649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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