Chronic ethanol feeding potentiates Fas Jo2-induced hepatotoxicity: role of CYP2E1 and TNF-alpha and activation of JNK and P38 MAP kinase

Alcohol-related liver disease: also a question of what you drink?

Excessive alcohol intake is still among the leading causes of chronic liver diseases. Epidemiological studies suggest that per capita consumption of alcohol from various alcohol beverages e.g., beer, wine, or spirits, differs markedly between different areas of the world. Studies further suggest that different alcoholic beverages may impact the development of alcohol-related liver diseases (ALD) differentially. Specifically, results of several more recent epidemiological studies suggest that consumption of wine and herein especially of red wine may be less harmful in relation to the development of liver diseases than the intake of hard spirits. Results of studies evaluating the effects of beer on the development of ALD in humans are rather contradictory. Here, results of studies assessing the impact of wine, beer, and spirits on the development of ALD as well as possible underlying mechanisms are summarized and discussed.

XIAP Knockdown in Alcohol-Associated Liver Disease Models Exhibits Divergent in vitro and in vivo Phenotypes Owing to a Potential Zonal Inhibitory Role of SMAC

Alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD) has been recognized as the most common cause of advanced liver disease worldwide, though mechanisms of pathogenesis remain incompletely understood. The X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) protein was originally described as an anti-apoptotic protein that directly binds and inhibits caspases-3, 7, and 9. Here, we investigated the function of XIAP in hepatocytes in vitro using gain and loss-of-function approaches. We noted an XIAP-dependent increase in caspase activation as well as increased inflammatory markers and pro-inflammatory EV release from hepatocytes in vitro. Primary hepatocytes (PMH) from Xiap Alb.Cre and Xiap loxP mice exhibited higher cell death but surprisingly, lower expression of inflammation markers. Conditioned media from these isolated Xiap deleted PMH further decrease inflammation in bone marrow-derived macrophages. Also, interestingly, when administered an ethanol plus Fas-agonist-Jo2 model and an ethanol plus CCl4 model, these animals failed to develop an exacerbated disease phenotype in vivo. Of note, neither Xiap Alb . Cre nor Xiap AAV8.Cre mice presented with aggravated liver injury, hepatocyte apoptosis, liver steatosis, or fibrosis. Since therapeutics targeting XIAP are currently in clinical trials and caspase-induced death is very important for development of ALD, we sought to explore the potential basis of this unexpected lack of effect. We utilized scRNA-seq and spatially reconstructed hepatocyte transcriptome data from human liver tissue and observed that XIAP was significantly zonated, along with its endogenous inhibitor second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (SMAC) in periportal region. This contrasted with pericentral zonation of other IAPs including cIAP1 and Apollon as well as caspases 3, 7, and 9. Thus providing a potential explanation for compensation of the effect of Xiap deletion by other IAPs. In conclusion, our findings implicate a potential zonallydependent role for SMAC that prevented development of a phenotype in XIAP knockout mice in ALD models. Targeting SMAC may also be important in addition to current efforts of targeting XIAP in treatment of ALD.

Research progress on the role of CaMKII in heart disease

In the heart, Ca²⁺ participates in electrical activity and myocardial contraction, which is closely related to the generation of action potential and excitation contraction coupling (ECC) and plays an important role in various signal cascades and regulates different physiological processes. In the Ca²⁺ related physiological activities, CaMKII is a key downstream regulator, involving autophosphorylation and post-translational modification, and plays an important role in the excitation contraction coupling and relaxation events of cardiomyocytes. This paper reviews the relationship between CaMKII and various substances in the pathological process of myocardial apoptosis and necrosis, myocardial hypertrophy and arrhythmia, and what roles it plays in the development of disease in complex networks. This paper also introduces the drugs targeting at CaMKII to treat heart disease.

Grape seed procyanidin extract ameliorates lead-induced liver injury via miRNA153 and AKT/GSK-3β/Fyn-mediated Nrf2 activation

Lead-induced hepatotoxicity is characterized by an extensive oxidative stress. Grape seed procyanidin extract (GSPE) possesses abundant biological activities. Herein, we investigated the protective role of GSPE against lead-induced liver injury and determined the potential molecular mechanisms. In vivo, rats were treated with/without lead acetate (PbAc) (0.05%, w/v) in the presence/absence of GSPE (200 mg/kg). In vitro, hepatocytes were pretreated with/without GSPE (100 μg/ml) in the presence/absence of PbAc (100 μM). PbAc administration to rats resulted in anemia, liver dysfunction, lead accumulation in the bone and liver, oxidative stress, DNA damage and apoptosis. GSPE significantly attenuated these adverse effects, except lead accumulation in liver. GSPE also decreased the expression of miRNA153 and increased the translocation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and levels of its downstream protein, and protein kinase B (AKT) phosphorylation in PbAc-induced liver injury. In primary hepatocytes treated with PbAc, GSPE increased hepatocyte viability and decreased lactate dehydrogenase release and reactive oxygen species levels. Dietary GSPE attenuated PbAc-induced liver injury in rats via an integrated mechanism associated with the miRNA153 and AKT/glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta/Fyn-mediated Nrf2 activation.

Tlr4-mutant mice are resistant to acute alcohol-induced sterol-regulatory element binding protein activation and hepatic lipid accumulation

Previous studies demonstrated that acute alcohol intoxication caused hepatic lipid accumulation. The present study showed that acute alcohol intoxication caused hepatic lipid accumulation in Tlr4-wild-type mice but not in Tlr4-mutant mice. Hepatic sterol-regulatory element binding protein (SREBP)-1, a transcription factor regulating fatty acid and triglyceride (TG) synthesis, was activated in alcohol-treated Tlr4-wild-type mice but not in Tlr4-mutant mice. Hepatic Fas, Acc, Scd-1 and Dgat-2, the key genes for fatty acid and TG synthesis, were up-regulated in alcohol-treated Tlr4-wild-type mice but not in Tlr4-mutant mice. Additional experiment showed that hepatic MyD88 was elevated in alcohol-treated Tlr4-wild-type mice but not in Tlr4-mutant mice. Hepatic NF-κB was activated in alcohol-treated Tlr4-wild-type mice but not in Tlr4-mutant mice. Moreover, hepatic GSH content was reduced and hepatic MDA level was elevated in alcohol-treated Tlr4-wild-type mice but not in Tlr4-mutant mice. Hepatic CYP2E1 was elevated in alcohol-treated Tlr4-wild-type mice but not in Tlr4-mutant mice. Hepatic p67phox and gp91phox, two NADPH oxidase subunits, were up-regulated in alcohol-treated Tlr4-wild-type mice but not in Tlr4-mutant mice. Alpha-phenyl-N-t-butylnitrone (PBN), a free radical spin-trapping agent, protected against alcohol-induced hepatic SREBP-1 activation and hepatic lipid accumulation. In conclusion, Tlr4-mutant mice are resistant to acute alcohol-induced hepatic SREBP-1 activation and hepatic lipid accumulation.

Metabolic derivatives of alcohol and the molecular culprits of fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis: Allies or enemies?

Chronic intake of alcohol undoubtedly overwhelms the structural and functional capacity of the liver by initiating complex pathological events characterized by steatosis, steatohepatitis, hepatic fibrosis and cirrhosis. Subsequently, these initial pathological events are sustained and ushered into a more complex and progressive liver disease, increasing the risk of fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis. These coordinated pathological events mainly result from buildup of toxic metabolic derivatives of alcohol including but not limited to acetaldehyde (AA), malondialdehyde (MDA), CYP2E1-generated reactive oxygen species, alcohol-induced gut-derived lipopolysaccharide, AA/MDA protein and DNA adducts. The metabolic derivatives of alcohol together with other comorbidity factors, including hepatitis B and C viral infections, dysregulated iron metabolism, abuse of antibiotics, schistosomiasis, toxic drug metabolites, autoimmune disease and other non-specific factors, have been shown to underlie liver diseases. In view of the multiple etiology of liver diseases, attempts to delineate the mechanism by which each etiological factor causes liver disease has always proved cumbersome if not impossible. In the case of alcoholic liver disease (ALD), it is even more cumbersome and complicated as a result of the many toxic metabolic derivatives of alcohol with their varying liver-specific toxicities. In spite of all these hurdles, researchers and experts in hepatology have strived to expand knowledge and scientific discourse, particularly on ALD and its associated complications through the medium of scientific research, reviews and commentaries. Nonetheless, the molecular mechanisms underpinning ALD, particularly those underlying toxic effects of metabolic derivatives of alcohol on parenchymal and non-parenchymal hepatic cells leading to increased risk of alcohol-induced fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis, are still incompletely elucidated. In this review, we examined published scientific findings on how alcohol and its metabolic derivatives mount cellular attack on each hepatic cell and the underlying molecular mechanisms leading to disruption of core hepatic homeostatic functions which probably set the stage for the initiation and progression of ALD to fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis. We also brought to sharp focus, the complex and integrative role of transforming growth factor beta/small mothers against decapentaplegic/plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and the mitogen activated protein kinase signaling nexus as well as their cross-signaling with toll-like receptor-mediated gut-dependent signaling pathways implicated in ALD and fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis. Looking into the future, it is hoped that these deliberations may stimulate new research directions on this topic and shape not only therapeutic approaches but also models for studying ALD and fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis.

Differential Relevance of NF-κB and JNK in the Pathophysiology of Hemorrhage/Resususcitation-Induced Liver Injury after Chronic Ethanol Feeding

BACKGROUND

Chronic ethanol (EtOH) abuse worsens pathophysiological derangements after hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation (H/R) that induce hepatic injury and strong inflammatory changes via JNK and NF-κB activation. Inhibiting JNK with a cell-penetrating, protease-resistant peptide D-JNKI-1 after H/R in mice with healthy livers ameliorated these effects. Here, we studied if JNK inhibition by D-JNKI-1 in chronically EtOH-fed mice after hemorrhagic shock prior to the onset of resuscitation also confers protection.

METHODS

Male mice were fed a Lieber-DeCarli diet containing EtOH or an isocaloric control (ctrl) diet for 4 weeks. Animals were hemorrhaged for 90 min (32 ± 2 mm Hg) and randomly received either D-JNKI-1 (11 mg/kg, intraperitoneally, i. p.) or sterile saline as vehicle (veh) immediately before the onset of resuscitation. Sham animals underwent surgical procedures without H/R and were either D-JNKI-1 or veh treated. Two hours after resuscitation, blood samples and liver tissue were harvested.

RESULTS

H/R induced hepatic injury with increased systemic interleukin (IL)-6 levels, and enhanced local gene expression of NF-κB-controlled genes such as intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 and matrix metallopeptidase (MMP)9. c-Jun and NF-κB phosphorylation were increased after H/R. These effects were further increased in EtOH-fed mice after H/R. D-JNKI-1 application inhibited the proinflammatory changes and reduced significantly hepatic injury after H/R in ctrl-fed mice. Moreover, D-JNKI-1 reduces in ctrl-fed mice the H/R-induced c-Jun and NF-κB phosphorylation. However, in chronically EtOH-fed mice, JNK inhibition did not prevent the H/R-induced hepatic damage and proinflammatory changes nor c-Jun and NF-κB phosphorylation after H/R.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate, that JNK inhibition is protective only in not pre-harmed liver after H/R. In contrast, the pronounced H/R-induced liver damage in mice being chronically fed with ethanol cannot be prevented by JNK inhibition after H/R and seems to be under the control of NF-κB.

Regulation of the effects of CYP2E1-induced oxidative stress by JNK signaling

The generation of excessive amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) leads to cellular oxidative stress that underlies a variety of forms of hepatocyte injury and death including that from alcohol. Although ROS can induce cell damage through direct effects on cellular macromolecules, the injurious effects of ROS are mediated largely through changes in signal transduction pathways such as the mitogen-activated protein kinase c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). In response to alcohol, hepatocytes have increased levels of the enzyme cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) which generates an oxidant stress that promotes the development of alcoholic steatosis and liver injury. These effects are mediated in large part through overactivation of JNK that alters cell death pathways. Targeting the JNK pathway or its downstream effectors may be a useful therapeutic approach to the oxidative stress generated by CYP2E1 in alcoholic liver disease.

Milk osteopontin, a nutritional approach to prevent alcohol-induced liver injury

Alcohol consumption is a leading cause of liver disease worldwide; thus, there is an urgent need to develop novel therapeutic interventions. Key events for the onset and progression of alcoholic liver disease result in part from the gut-to-liver interaction. Osteopontin is a cytokine present at high concentration in human milk, umbilical cord, and infants' plasma with beneficial potential. We hypothesized that dietary administration of milk osteopontin could prevent alcohol-induced liver injury perhaps by maintaining gut integrity and averting hepatic inflammation and steatosis. Wild-type mice were fed either the control or the ethanol Lieber-DeCarli diets alone or in combination with milk osteopontin for 3 wk, and parameters of gut and liver damage were measured. Milk osteopontin protected the stomach and the gut by increasing gland height, crypt cell plus enterocyte proliferation, and mucin content in addition to lowering macrophages, plasmacytes, lymphocytes, and neutrophils in the mucosa and submucosa in alcohol-fed mice. Milk osteopontin targeted the gut-liver axis, preserving the expression of tight-junction proteins in alcohol-fed mice thus maintaining intestinal integrity and permeability. There was protection from liver injury since transaminases, the activity scores, triglyceride levels, neutrophil infiltration, 3-nitrotyrosine residues, lipid peroxidation end products, translocation of gram-negative bacteria, lipopolysaccharide levels, and tumor necrosis factor-α were lower in cotreated than in ethanol-fed mice. Furthermore, milk osteopontin diminished ethanol-mediated liver injury in OPN knockout mice. Milk osteopontin could be a simple effective nutritional therapeutic strategy to prevent alcohol hepatotoxicity due, among others, to gut protective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-steatotic actions.

Involvement of the apelin receptor APJ in Fas-induced liver injury

BACKGROUND

Apelin-APJ signalling is known to play important roles in heart physiology and pathology; however, its functions in liver physiology and pathology remain unclear. On the other hand, Fas is an important molecule in hepatitis and other liver disease that belongs to the death receptor family. The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between apelin-APJ signaling and Fas-mediated liver injury in mice.

METHODS

APJ(-/-) mice and wild type (WT) mice were administered an intraperitoneal injection of an agonistic anti-Fas antibody (clone; Jo2), and sacrificed after 3 or 6 h to assess the liver histology. The expression levels of apelin and APJ, plasma levels of transaminases, activities of hepatic caspases and activations of stress-activated protein kinases were also analysed.

RESULTS

Before the Jo2 injection, APJ was weakly expressed in the hepatocytes in spots; on the other hand, after the Jo2 injection, it had spread into whole hepatocytes. Moreover, the mRNA expression level of apelin and APJ in the liver increased after Jo2 injection. In the APJ(-/-) mice, the liver injuries and apoptotic changes were significantly inhibited as compared with those in the WT mice. Dramatic increase in JNK activation was observed in the WT mice after Jo2 injection, whereas such activation was completely absent in the APJ(-/-) mice. JNK inhibitor partially, but significantly suppressed Jo2-mediated liver injury in WT mice.

CONCLUSION

Apelin-APJ signalling may promote Fas-induced liver injury at least partially via JNK activation, and may thus serve as a potential therapeutic target in cases of acute liver injury.

Cytochrome P4502E1, oxidative stress, JNK, and autophagy in acute alcohol-induced fatty liver

Binge alcohol drinking induces hepatic steatosis. Recent studies showed that chronic ethanol-induced fatty liver was, at least in part, CYP2E1 dependent. The mechanism of acute alcohol-induced steatosis and whether CYP2E1 plays any role are still unclear. Increasing oxidative stress by alcohol can activate the JNK MAP kinase signaling pathway, suggesting that JNK might be a target for prevention of alcohol-induced steatosis. We used CYP2E1 knockout (KO) mice, a JNK inhibitor, and JNK1 or JNK2 knockout mice to test the role of CYP2E1, JNK, and the individual role of JNK1 and JNK2 in acute alcohol-induced steatosis. In wild-type (WT) mice, acute alcohol activates CYP2E1 and increases oxidative stress, which reciprocally increases activation of the JNK signaling pathway. Acute alcohol-induced fatty liver and oxidative stress were blunted in CYP2E1 KO mice and by the JNK inhibitor in WT mice. The antioxidant N-acetylcysteine decreased the acute alcohol-induced oxidative stress, the activation of JNK, and the steatosis but not the activation of CYP2E1. Acute alcohol decreased autophagy and increased expression of SREBP, effects blocked by the JNK inhibitor. Acute alcohol-induced fatty liver was the same in JNK1 and JNK2 KO mice as in WT mice; thus either JNK1 or JNK2 per se is sufficient for induction of steatosis by acute alcohol. The results show that acute alcohol elevation of CYP2E1, oxidative stress, and activation of JNK interact to lower autophagy and increase lipogenic SREBP resulting in fatty liver.

Elevated glutathione level does not protect against chronic alcohol mediated apoptosis in recombinant human hepatoma cell line VL-17A over-expressing alcohol metabolizing enzymes--alcohol dehydrogenase and Cytochrome P450 2E1

Chronic consumption of alcohol leads to liver injury. Ethanol-inducible Cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) plays a critical role in alcohol mediated oxidative stress due to its ability to metabolize ethanol. In the present study, using the recombinant human hepatoma cell line VL-17A that over-expresses the alcohol metabolizing enzymes-alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and CYP2E1; and control HepG2 cells, the mechanism and mode of cell death due to chronic ethanol exposure were studied. Untreated VL-17A cells exhibited apoptosis and oxidative stress when compared with untreated HepG2 cells. Chronic alcohol exposure, i.e., 100 mM ethanol treatment for 72 h caused a significant decrease in viability (47%) in VL-17A cells but not in HepG2 cells. Chronic ethanol mediated cell death in VL-17A cells was predominantly apoptotic, with increased oxidative stress as the underlying mechanism. Chronic ethanol exposure of VL-17A cells resulted in 1.1- to 2.5-fold increased levels of ADH and CYP2E1. Interestingly, the level of the antioxidant GSH was found to be 3-fold upregulated in VL-17A cells treated with ethanol, which may be a metabolic adaptation to the persistent and overwhelming oxidative stress. In conclusion, the increased GSH level may not be sufficient enough to protect VL-17A cells from chronic alcohol mediated oxidative stress and resultant apoptosis.