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Benchimol M, Gadelha AP, de Souza W. Ultrastructural Alterations of the Human Pathogen Giardia intestinalis after Drug Treatment. Pathogens 2023; 12:810. [PMID: 37375500 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12060810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This review presents the main cell characteristics altered after in vitro incubation of the parasite with commercial drugs used to treat the disease caused by Giardia intestinalis. This important intestinal parasite primarily causes diarrhea in children. Metronidazole and albendazole are the primary compounds used in therapy against Giardia intestinalis. However, they provoke significant side effects, and some strains have developed resistance to metronidazole. Benzimidazole carbamates, such as albendazole and mebendazole, have shown the best activity against Giardia. Despite their in vitro efficacy, clinical treatment with benzimidazoles has yielded conflicting results, demonstrating lower cure rates. Recently, nitazoxanide has been suggested as an alternative to these drugs. Therefore, to enhance the quality of chemotherapy against this parasite, it is important to invest in developing other compounds that can interfere with key steps of metabolic pathways or cell structures and organelles. For example, Giardia exhibits a unique cell structure called the ventral disc, which is crucial for host adhesion and pathogenicity. Thus, drugs that can disrupt the adhesion process hold promise for future therapy against Giardia. Additionally, this review discusses new drugs and strategies that can be employed, as well as suggestions for developing novel drugs to control the infection caused by this parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Benchimol
- BIOTRANS-CAXIAS, Universidade do Grande Rio. UNIGRANRIO, Rio de Janeiro 96200-000, Brazil
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagens e Centro Nacional de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagens, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Gadelha
- Diretoria de Metrologia Científica, Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia (INMETRO), Rio de Janeiro 25259-020, Brazil
| | - Wanderley de Souza
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagens e Centro Nacional de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagens, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, Brazil
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2
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Sendra KM, Barwinska-Sendra A, Mackenzie ES, Baslé A, Kehl-Fie TE, Waldron KJ. An ancient metalloenzyme evolves through metal preference modulation. Nat Ecol Evol 2023; 7:732-744. [PMID: 37037909 PMCID: PMC10172142 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-023-02012-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
Evolution creates functional diversity of proteins, the essential building blocks of all biological systems. However, studies of natural proteins sampled across the tree of life and evaluated in a single experimental system are lacking. Almost half of enzymes require metals, and metalloproteins tend to optimally utilize the physicochemical properties of a specific metal co-factor. Life must adapt to changes in metal bioavailability, including those during the transition from anoxic to oxic Earth or pathogens' exposure to nutritional immunity. These changes can challenge the ability of metalloenzymes to maintain activity, presumptively driving their evolution. Here we studied metal-preference evolution within the natural diversity of the iron/manganese superoxide dismutase (SodFM) family of reactive oxygen species scavengers. We identified and experimentally verified residues with conserved roles in determining metal preference that, when combined with an understanding of the protein's evolutionary history, improved prediction of metal utilization across the five SodFM subfamilies defined herein. By combining phylogenetics, biochemistry and structural biology, we demonstrate that SodFM metal utilization can be evolutionarily fine tuned by sliding along a scale between perfect manganese and iron specificities. Over the history of life, SodFM metal preference has been modulated multiple independent times within different evolutionary and ecological contexts, and can be changed within short evolutionary timeframes.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Sendra
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
| | - A Barwinska-Sendra
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - E S Mackenzie
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - A Baslé
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - T E Kehl-Fie
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
| | - K J Waldron
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
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3
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Krakovka S, Ribacke U, Miyamoto Y, Eckmann L, Svärd S. Characterization of Metronidazole-Resistant Giardia intestinalis Lines by Comparative Transcriptomics and Proteomics. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:834008. [PMID: 35222342 PMCID: PMC8866875 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.834008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Metronidazole (MTZ) is a clinically important antimicrobial agent that is active against both bacterial and protozoan organisms. MTZ has been used extensively for more than 60 years and until now resistance has been rare. However, a recent and dramatic increase in the number of MTZ resistant bacteria and protozoa is of great concern since there are few alternative drugs with a similarly broad activity spectrum. To identify key factors and mechanisms underlying MTZ resistance, we utilized the protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis, which is commonly treated with MTZ. We characterized two in vitro selected, metronidazole resistant parasite lines, as well as one revertant, by analyzing fitness aspects associated with increased drug resistance and transcriptomes and proteomes. We also conducted a meta-analysis using already existing data from additional resistant G. intestinalis isolates. The combined data suggest that in vitro generated MTZ resistance has a substantial fitness cost to the parasite, which may partly explain why resistance is not widespread despite decades of heavy use. Mechanistically, MTZ resistance in Giardia is multifactorial and associated with complex changes, yet a core set of pathways involving oxidoreductases, oxidative stress responses and DNA repair proteins, is central to MTZ resistance in both bacteria and protozoa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Krakovka
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Biomedical Center (BMC), Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ulf Ribacke
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yukiko Miyamoto
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Lars Eckmann
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Staffan Svärd
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Biomedical Center (BMC), Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,SciLifeLab, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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4
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Oxygen levels are key to understanding "Anaerobic" protozoan pathogens with micro-aerophilic lifestyles. Adv Microb Physiol 2021; 79:163-240. [PMID: 34836611 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ampbs.2021.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Publications abound on the physiology, biochemistry and molecular biology of "anaerobic" protozoal parasites as usually grown under "anaerobic" culture conditions. The media routinely used are poised at low redox potentials using techniques that remove O2 to "undetectable" levels in sealed containers. However there is growing understanding that these culture conditions do not faithfully resemble the O2 environments these organisms inhabit. Here we review for protists lacking oxidative energy metabolism, the oxygen cascade from atmospheric to intracellular concentrations and relevant methods of measurements of O2, some well-studied parasitic or symbiotic protozoan lifestyles, their homeodynamic metabolic and redox balances, organism-drug-oxygen interactions, and the present and future prospects for improved drugs and treatment regimes.
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Jiménez-González A, Xu F, Andersson JO. Lateral Acquisitions Repeatedly Remodel the Oxygen Detoxification Pathway in Diplomonads and Relatives. Genome Biol Evol 2020; 11:2542-2556. [PMID: 31504492 PMCID: PMC6934886 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evz188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxygen and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important stress factors for cells because they can oxidize many large molecules. Fornicata, a group of flagellated protists that includes diplomonads, have anaerobic metabolism but are still able to tolerate fluctuating levels of oxygen. We identified 25 protein families putatively involved in detoxification of oxygen and ROS in this group using a bioinformatics approach and propose how these interact in an oxygen detoxification pathway. These protein families were divided into a central oxygen detoxification pathway and accessory pathways for the synthesis of nonprotein thiols. We then used a phylogenetic approach to investigate the evolutionary origin of the components of this putative pathway in Diplomonadida and other Fornicata species. Our analyses suggested that the diplomonad ancestor was adapted to low-oxygen levels, was able to reduce O2 to H2O in a manner similar to extant diplomonads, and was able to synthesize glutathione and l-cysteine. Several genes involved in the pathway have complex evolutionary histories and have apparently been repeatedly acquired through lateral gene transfer and subsequently lost. At least seven genes were acquired independently in different Fornicata lineages, leading to evolutionary convergences. It is likely that acquiring these oxygen detoxification proteins helped anaerobic organisms (like the parasitic Giardia intestinalis) adapt to low-oxygen environments (such as the digestive tract of aerobic hosts).
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Jiménez-González
- Uppsala Biomedicine Centre, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Molecular Evolution Program, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Feifei Xu
- Uppsala Biomedicine Centre, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Microbiology Program, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Jan O Andersson
- Uppsala Biomedicine Centre, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Molecular Evolution Program, Uppsala University, Sweden
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Martins MC, Romão CV, Folgosa F, Borges PT, Frazão C, Teixeira M. How superoxide reductases and flavodiiron proteins combat oxidative stress in anaerobes. Free Radic Biol Med 2019; 140:36-60. [PMID: 30735841 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2019.01.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Microbial anaerobes are exposed in the natural environment and in their hosts, even if transiently, to fluctuating concentrations of oxygen and its derived reactive species, which pose a considerable threat to their anoxygenic lifestyle. To counteract these stressful conditions, they contain a multifaceted array of detoxifying systems that, in conjugation with cellular repairing mechanisms and in close crosstalk with metal homeostasis, allow them to survive in the presence of O2 and reactive oxygen species. Some of these systems are shared with aerobes, but two families of enzymes emerged more recently that, although not restricted to anaerobes, are predominant in anaerobic microbes. These are the iron-containing superoxide reductases, and the flavodiiron proteins, endowed with O2 and/or NO reductase activities, which are the subject of this Review. A detailed account of their physicochemical, physiological and molecular mechanisms will be presented, highlighting their unique properties in allowing survival of anaerobes in oxidative stress conditions, and comparing their properties with the most well-known detoxifying systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria C Martins
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Célia V Romão
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Filipe Folgosa
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Patrícia T Borges
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Carlos Frazão
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Miguel Teixeira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal.
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Saghaug CS, Klotz C, Kallio JP, Brattbakk HR, Stokowy T, Aebischer T, Kursula I, Langeland N, Hanevik K. Genetic variation in metronidazole metabolism and oxidative stress pathways in clinical Giardia lamblia assemblage A and B isolates. Infect Drug Resist 2019; 12:1221-1235. [PMID: 31190910 PMCID: PMC6519707 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s177997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Treatment-refractory Giardia cases have increased rapidly within the last decade. No markers of resistance nor a standardized susceptibility test have been established yet, but several enzymes and their pathways have been associated with metronidazole (MTZ) resistant Giardia. Very limited data are available regarding genetic variation in these pathways. We aimed to investigate genetic variation in metabolic pathway genes proposed to be involved in MTZ resistance in recently acquired, cultured clinical isolates. Methods: Whole genome sequencing of 12 assemblage A2 and 8 assemblage B isolates was done, to decipher genomic variation in Giardia. Twenty-nine genes were identified in a literature search and investigated for their single nucleotide variants (SNVs) in the coding/non-coding regions of the genes, either as amino acid changing (non-synonymous SNVs) or non-changing SNVs (synonymous). Results: In Giardia assemblage B, several genes involved in MTZ activation or oxidative stress management were found to have higher numbers of non-synonymous SNVs (thioredoxin peroxidase, nitroreductase 1, ferredoxin 2, NADH oxidase, nitroreductase 2, alcohol dehydrogenase, ferredoxin 4 and ferredoxin 1) than the average variation. For Giardia assemblage A2, the highest genetic variability was found in the ferredoxin 2, ferredoxin 6 and in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidoreductase putative genes. SNVs found in the ferredoxins and nitroreductases were analyzed further by alignment and homology modeling. SNVs close to the iron-sulfur cluster binding sites in nitroreductase-1 and 2 and ferredoxin 2 and 4 could potentially affect protein function. Flavohemoprotein seems to be a variable-copy gene, due to higher, but variable coverage compared to other genes investigated. Conclusion: In clinical Giardia isolates, genetic variability is common in important genes in the MTZ metabolizing pathway and in the management of oxidative and nitrosative stress and includes high numbers of non-synonymous SNVs. Some of the identified amino acid changes could potentially affect the respective proteins important in the MTZ metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina S Saghaug
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
| | - Christian Klotz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Unit 16 Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Juha P Kallio
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
| | - Hans-Richard Brattbakk
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Center for Medical Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
| | - Tomasz Stokowy
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Center for Medical Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
| | - Toni Aebischer
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Unit 16 Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Inari Kursula
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Biocenter Oulu and Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Nina Langeland
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Department of Medicine, Haraldsplass Deaconess Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
| | - Kurt Hanevik
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
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8
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Stairs CW, Kokla A, Ástvaldsson Á, Jerlström-Hultqvist J, Svärd S, Ettema TJG. Oxygen induces the expression of invasion and stress response genes in the anaerobic salmon parasite Spironucleus salmonicida. BMC Biol 2019; 17:19. [PMID: 30823887 PMCID: PMC6397501 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-019-0634-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Spironucleus salmonicida is an anaerobic parasite that can cause systemic infections in Atlantic salmon. Unlike other diplomonad parasites, such as the human pathogen Giardia intestinalis, Spironucleus species can infiltrate the blood stream of their hosts eventually colonizing organs, skin and gills. How this presumed anaerobe can persist and invade oxygenated tissues, despite having a strictly anaerobic metabolism, remains elusive. Results To investigate how S. salmonicida response to oxygen stress, we performed RNAseq transcriptomic analyses of cells grown in the presence of oxygen or antioxidant-free medium. We found that over 20% of the transcriptome is differentially regulated in oxygen (1705 genes) and antioxidant-depleted (2280 genes) conditions. These differentially regulated transcripts encode proteins related to anaerobic metabolism, cysteine and Fe-S cluster biosynthesis, as well as a large number of proteins of unknown function. S. salmonicida does not encode genes involved in the classical elements of oxygen metabolism (e.g., catalases, superoxide dismutase, glutathione biosynthesis, oxidative phosphorylation). Instead, we found that genes encoding bacterial-like oxidoreductases were upregulated in response to oxygen stress. Phylogenetic analysis revealed some of these oxygen-responsive genes (e.g., nadh oxidase, rubrerythrin, superoxide reductase) are rare in eukaryotes and likely derived from lateral gene transfer (LGT) events into diplomonads from prokaryotes. Unexpectedly, we observed that many host evasion- and invasion-related genes were also upregulated under oxidative stress suggesting that oxygen might be an important signal for pathogenesis. Conclusion While oxygen is toxic for related organisms, such as G. intestinalis, we find that oxygen is likely a gene induction signal for host invasion- and evasion-related pathways in S. salmonicida. These data provide the first molecular evidence for how S. salmonicida could tolerate oxic host environments and demonstrate how LGT can have a profound impact on the biology of anaerobic parasites. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12915-019-0634-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney W Stairs
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Anna Kokla
- Present Address: Department of Plant Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Almas Allé 5, BioCentrum, room D-444, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ásgeir Ástvaldsson
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jon Jerlström-Hultqvist
- Present Address: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - Staffan Svärd
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Thijs J G Ettema
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Agrotechnology and Food Sciences, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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9
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Romão CV, Matias PM, Sousa CM, Pinho FG, Pinto AF, Teixeira M, Bandeiras TM. Insights into the Structures of Superoxide Reductases from the Symbionts Ignicoccus hospitalis and Nanoarchaeum equitans. Biochemistry 2018; 57:5271-5281. [PMID: 29939726 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b00334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Superoxide reductases (SORs) are enzymes that detoxify the superoxide anion through its reduction to hydrogen peroxide and exist in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The substrate is transformed at an iron catalytic center, pentacoordinated in the ferrous state by four histidines and one cysteine. SORs have a highly conserved motif, (E)(K)HxP-, in which the glutamate is associated with a redox-driven structural change, completing the octahedral coordination of the iron in the ferric state, whereas the lysine may be responsible for stabilization and donation of a proton to catalytic intermediates. We aimed to understand at the structural level the role of these two residues, by determining the X-ray structures of the SORs from the hyperthermophilic archaea Ignicoccus hospitalis and Nanoarchaeum equitans that lack the quasi-conserved lysine and glutamate, respectively, but have catalytic rate constants similar to those of the canonical enzymes, as we previously demonstrated. Furthermore, we have determined the crystal structure of the E23A mutant of I. hospitalis SOR, which mimics several enzymes that lack both residues. The structures revealed distinct structural arrangements of the catalytic center that simulate several catalytic cycle intermediates, namely, the reduced and the oxidized forms, and the glutamate-free and deprotonated ferric forms. Moreover, the structure of the I. hospitalis SOR provides evidence for the presence of an alternative lysine close to the iron center in the reduced state that may be a functional substitute for the "canonical" lysine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Célia V Romão
- ITQB NOVA, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier , Universidade Nova de Lisboa , Av. da República , 2780-157 Oeiras , Portugal
| | - Pedro M Matias
- ITQB NOVA, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier , Universidade Nova de Lisboa , Av. da República , 2780-157 Oeiras , Portugal.,iBET , Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica , Apartado 12 , 2781-901 Oeiras , Portugal
| | - Cristiana M Sousa
- iBET , Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica , Apartado 12 , 2781-901 Oeiras , Portugal
| | - Filipa G Pinho
- iBET , Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica , Apartado 12 , 2781-901 Oeiras , Portugal
| | - Ana F Pinto
- ITQB NOVA, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier , Universidade Nova de Lisboa , Av. da República , 2780-157 Oeiras , Portugal
| | - Miguel Teixeira
- ITQB NOVA, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier , Universidade Nova de Lisboa , Av. da República , 2780-157 Oeiras , Portugal
| | - Tiago M Bandeiras
- ITQB NOVA, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier , Universidade Nova de Lisboa , Av. da República , 2780-157 Oeiras , Portugal.,iBET , Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica , Apartado 12 , 2781-901 Oeiras , Portugal
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10
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Schatzman SS, Culotta VC. Chemical Warfare at the Microorganismal Level: A Closer Look at the Superoxide Dismutase Enzymes of Pathogens. ACS Infect Dis 2018. [PMID: 29517910 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.8b00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Superoxide anion radical is generated as a natural byproduct of aerobic metabolism but is also produced as part of the oxidative burst of the innate immune response design to kill pathogens. In living systems, superoxide is largely managed through superoxide dismutases (SODs), families of metalloenzymes that use Fe, Mn, Ni, or Cu cofactors to catalyze the disproportionation of superoxide to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. Given the bursts of superoxide faced by microbial pathogens, it comes as no surprise that SOD enzymes play important roles in microbial survival and virulence. Interestingly, microbial SOD enzymes not only detoxify host superoxide but also may participate in signaling pathways that involve reactive oxygen species derived from the microbe itself, particularly in the case of eukaryotic pathogens. In this Review, we will discuss the chemistry of superoxide radicals and the role of diverse SOD metalloenzymes in bacterial, fungal, and protozoan pathogens. We will highlight the unique features of microbial SOD enzymes that have evolved to accommodate the harsh lifestyle at the host-pathogen interface. Lastly, we will discuss key non-SOD superoxide scavengers that specific pathogens employ for defense against host superoxide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina S. Schatzman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Pubic Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - Valeria C. Culotta
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Pubic Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
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11
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Leitsch D, Williams CF, Hrdý I. Redox Pathways as Drug Targets in Microaerophilic Parasites. Trends Parasitol 2018; 34:576-589. [PMID: 29807758 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2018.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The microaerophilic parasites Entamoeba histolytica, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Giardia lamblia jointly cause hundreds of millions of infections in humans every year. Other microaerophilic parasites such as Tritrichomonas foetus and Spironucleus spp. pose a relevant health problem in veterinary medicine. Unfortunately, vaccines against these pathogens are unavailable, but their microaerophilic lifestyle opens opportunities for specifically developed chemotherapeutics. In particular, their high sensitivity towards oxygen can be exploited by targeting redox enzymes. This review focusses on the redox pathways of microaerophilic parasites and on drugs, either already in use or currently in the state of development, which target these pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Leitsch
- Institute for Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology, and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Austria.
| | - Catrin F Williams
- School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Ivan Hrdý
- Department of Parasitology, Charles University, Faculty of Science, Prague, Czech Republic
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12
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Nagaraja S, Ankri S. Utilization of Different Omic Approaches to Unravel Stress Response Mechanisms in the Parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:19. [PMID: 29473019 PMCID: PMC5809450 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During its life cycle, the unicellular parasite Entamoeba histolytica is challenged by a wide variety of environmental stresses, such as fluctuation in glucose concentration, changes in gut microbiota composition, and the release of oxidative and nitrosative species from neutrophils and macrophages. The best mode of survival for this parasite is to continuously adapt itself to the dynamic environment of the host. Our ability to study the stress-induced responses and adaptive mechanisms of this parasite has been transformed through the development of genomics, proteomics or metabolomics (omics sciences). These studies provide insights into different facets of the parasite's behavior in the host. However, there is a dire need for multi-omics data integration to better understand its pathogenic nature, ultimately paving the way to identify new chemotherapeutic targets against amebiasis. This review provides an integration of the most relevant omics information on the mechanisms that are used by E. histolytica to resist environmental stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti Nagaraja
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Serge Ankri
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
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Ansell BRE, Baker L, Emery SJ, McConville MJ, Svärd SG, Gasser RB, Jex AR. Transcriptomics Indicates Active and Passive Metronidazole Resistance Mechanisms in Three Seminal Giardia Lines. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:398. [PMID: 28367140 PMCID: PMC5355454 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardia duodenalis is an intestinal parasite that causes 200-300 million episodes of diarrhoea annually. Metronidazole (Mtz) is a front-line anti-giardial, but treatment failure is common and clinical resistance has been demonstrated. Mtz is thought to be activated within the parasite by oxidoreductase enzymes, and to kill by causing oxidative damage. In G. duodenalis, Mtz resistance involves active and passive mechanisms. Relatively low activity of iron-sulfur binding proteins, namely pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR), ferredoxins, and nitroreductase-1, enable resistant cells to passively avoid Mtz activation. Additionally, low expression of oxygen-detoxification enzymes can allow passive (non-enzymatic) Mtz detoxification via futile redox cycling. In contrast, active resistance mechanisms include complete enzymatic detoxification of the pro-drug by nitroreductase-2 and enhanced repair of oxidized biomolecules via thioredoxin-dependent antioxidant enzymes. Molecular resistance mechanisms may be largely founded on reversible transcriptional changes, as some resistant lines revert to drug sensitivity during drug-free culture in vitro, or passage through the life cycle. To comprehensively characterize these changes, we undertook strand-specific RNA sequencing of three laboratory-derived Mtz-resistant lines, 106-2ID10, 713-M3, and WB-M3, and compared transcription relative to their susceptible parents. Common up-regulated genes encoded variant-specific surface proteins (VSPs), a high cysteine membrane protein, calcium and zinc channels, a Mad-2 cell cycle regulator and a putative fatty acid α-oxidase. Down-regulated genes included nitroreductase-1, putative chromate and quinone reductases, and numerous genes that act proximal to PFOR. Transcriptional changes in 106-2ID10 diverged from those in 713-r and WB-r (r ≤ 0.2), which were more similar to each other (r = 0.47). In 106-2ID10, a nonsense mutation in nitroreductase-1 transcripts could enhance passive resistance whereas increased transcription of nitroreductase-2, and a MATE transmembrane pump system, suggest active drug detoxification and efflux, respectively. By contrast, transcriptional changes in 713-M3 and WB-M3 indicated a higher oxidative stress load, attributed to Mtz- and oxygen-derived radicals, respectively. Quantitative comparisons of orthologous gene transcription between Mtz-resistant G. duodenalis and Trichomonas vaginalis, a closely related parasite, revealed changes in transcripts encoding peroxidases, heat shock proteins, and FMN-binding oxidoreductases, as prominent correlates of resistance. This work provides deep insight into Mtz-resistant G. duodenalis, and illuminates resistance-associated features across parasitic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan R. E. Ansell
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of MelbourneMelbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Louise Baker
- Population Health and Immunity Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical ResearchMelbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Samantha J. Emery
- Population Health and Immunity Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical ResearchMelbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Malcolm J. McConville
- Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of MelbourneMelbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Staffan G. Svärd
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala UniversityUppsala, Sweden
| | - Robin B. Gasser
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of MelbourneMelbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Aaron R. Jex
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of MelbourneMelbourne, VIC, Australia
- Population Health and Immunity Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical ResearchMelbourne, VIC, Australia
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14
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Antioxidant defence systems in the protozoan pathogen Giardia intestinalis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2016; 206:56-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2015.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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15
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Sousa CM, Carpentier P, Matias PM, Testa F, Pinho F, Sarti P, Giuffrè A, Bandeiras TM, Romão CV. Superoxide reductase from Giardia intestinalis: structural characterization of the first SOR from a eukaryotic organism shows an iron centre that is highly sensitive to photoreduction. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 71:2236-47. [PMID: 26527141 DOI: 10.1107/s1399004715015825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Superoxide reductase (SOR), which is commonly found in prokaryotic organisms, affords protection from oxidative stress by reducing the superoxide anion to hydrogen peroxide. The reaction is catalyzed at the iron centre, which is highly conserved among the prokaryotic SORs structurally characterized to date. Reported here is the first structure of an SOR from a eukaryotic organism, the protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis (GiSOR), which was solved at 2.0 Å resolution. By collecting several diffraction data sets at 100 K from the same flash-cooled protein crystal using synchrotron X-ray radiation, photoreduction of the iron centre was observed. Reduction was monitored using an online UV-visible microspectrophotometer, following the decay of the 647 nm absorption band characteristic of the iron site in the glutamate-bound, oxidized state. Similarly to other 1Fe-SORs structurally characterized to date, the enzyme displays a tetrameric quaternary-structure arrangement. As a distinctive feature, the N-terminal loop of the protein, containing the characteristic EKHxP motif, revealed an unusually high flexibility regardless of the iron redox state. At variance with previous evidence collected by X-ray crystallography and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of prokaryotic SORs, iron reduction did not lead to dissociation of glutamate from the catalytic metal or other structural changes; however, the glutamate ligand underwent X-ray-induced chemical changes, revealing high sensitivity of the GiSOR active site to X-ray radiation damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristiana M Sousa
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, António Xavier Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Philippe Carpentier
- Structural Biology Group, ESRF - The European Synchrotron, CS40220, 38043 Grenoble CEDEX 9, France
| | - Pedro M Matias
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, António Xavier Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Fabrizio Testa
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Filipa Pinho
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Apartado 12, 2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Paolo Sarti
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | | | - Tiago M Bandeiras
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, António Xavier Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Célia V Romão
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, António Xavier Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
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16
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Ansell BRE, McConville MJ, Ma'ayeh SY, Dagley MJ, Gasser RB, Svärd SG, Jex AR. Drug resistance in Giardia duodenalis. Biotechnol Adv 2015; 33:888-901. [PMID: 25922317 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2015] [Revised: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Giardia duodenalis is a microaerophilic parasite of the human gastrointestinal tract and a major contributor to diarrheal and post-infectious chronic gastrointestinal disease world-wide. Treatment of G. duodenalis infection currently relies on a small number of drug classes. Nitroheterocyclics, in particular metronidazole, have represented the front line treatment for the last 40 years. Nitroheterocyclic-resistant G. duodenalis have been isolated from patients and created in vitro, prompting considerable research into the biomolecular mechanisms of resistance. These compounds are redox-active and are believed to damage proteins and DNA after being activated by oxidoreductase enzymes in metabolically active cells. In this review, we explore the molecular phenotypes of nitroheterocyclic-resistant G. duodenalis described to date in the context of the protist's unusual glycolytic and antioxidant systems. We propose that resistance mechanisms are likely to extend well beyond currently described resistance-associated enzymes (i.e., pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductases and nitroreductases), to include NAD(P)H- and flavin-generating pathways, and possibly redox-sensitive epigenetic regulation. Mechanisms that allow G. duodenalis to tolerate oxidative stress may lead to resistance against both oxygen and nitroheterocyclics, with implications for clinical control. The present review highlights the potential for systems biology tools and advanced bioinformatics to further investigate the multifaceted mechanisms of nitroheterocyclic resistance in this important pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan R E Ansell
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Cnr Park Dr and Flemington Rd, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Malcolm J McConville
- Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Rd, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Showgy Y Ma'ayeh
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Biomedical Center, Uppsala University, Box 596, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Michael J Dagley
- Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Rd, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Robin B Gasser
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Cnr Park Dr and Flemington Rd, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Staffan G Svärd
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Biomedical Center, Uppsala University, Box 596, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Aaron R Jex
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Cnr Park Dr and Flemington Rd, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
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17
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Argüello-García R, Cruz-Soto M, González-Trejo R, Paz-Maldonado LMT, Bazán-Tejeda ML, Mendoza-Hernández G, Ortega-Pierres G. An antioxidant response is involved in resistance of Giardia duodenalis to albendazole. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:286. [PMID: 25914688 PMCID: PMC4392323 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Albendazole (ABZ) is a therapeutic benzimidazole used to treat giardiasis that targets β-tubulin. However, the molecular bases of ABZ resistance in Giardia duodenalis are not understood because β-tubulin in ABZ-resistant clones lacks mutations explaining drug resistance. In previous work we compared ABZ-resistant (1.35, 8, and 250 μM) and ABZ-susceptible clones by proteomic analysis and eight proteins involved in energy metabolism, cytoskeleton dynamics, and antioxidant response were found as differentially expressed among the clones. Since ABZ is converted into sulphoxide (ABZ-SO) and sulphone (ABZ-SOO) metabolites we measured the levels of these metabolites, the antioxidant enzymes and free thiols in the susceptible and resistant clones. Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and levels of ABZ-SO/ABZ-SOO induced by ABZ were determined by fluorescein diacetate-based fluorescence and liquid chromatography respectively. The mRNA and protein levels of antioxidant enzymes (NADH oxidase, peroxiredoxin 1a, superoxide dismutase and flavodiiron protein) in these clones were determined by RT-PCR and proteomic analysis. The intracellular sulfhydryl (R-SH) pool was quantified using dinitrobenzoic acid. The results showed that ABZ induced ROS accumulation in the ABZ-susceptible Giardia cultures but not in the resistant ones whilst the accumulation of ABZ-SO and ABZ-SOO was lower in all ABZ-resistant cultures. Consistent with these findings, all the antioxidant enzymes detected and analyzed were upregulated in ABZ-resistant clones. Likewise the R-SH pool increased concomitantly to the degree of ABZ-resistance. These results indicate an association between accumulation of ABZ metabolites and a pro-oxidant effect of ABZ in Giardia-susceptible clones. Furthermore the antioxidant response involving ROS-metabolizing enzymes and intracellular free thiols in ABZ-resistant parasites suggest that this response may contribute to overcome the pro-oxidant cytotoxicity of ABZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl Argüello-García
- Departamento de Genética y Biología Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City Mexico
| | | | - Rolando González-Trejo
- Departamento de Genética y Biología Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City Mexico
| | - Luz María T Paz-Maldonado
- Ingeniería de Biorreactores, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí Mexico
| | - M Luisa Bazán-Tejeda
- Departamento de Genética y Biología Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City Mexico
| | - Guillermo Mendoza-Hernández
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City Mexico
| | - Guadalupe Ortega-Pierres
- Departamento de Genética y Biología Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City Mexico
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18
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Bahadur V, Mastronicola D, Singh AK, Tiwari HK, Pucillo LP, Sarti P, Singh BK, Giuffrè A. Antigiardial activity of novel triazolyl-quinolone-based chalcone derivatives: when oxygen makes the difference. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:256. [PMID: 25904901 PMCID: PMC4389562 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Giardiasis is a common diarrheal disease worldwide caused by the protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis. It is urgent to develop novel drugs to treat giardiasis, due to increasing clinical resistance to the gold standard drug metronidazole (MTZ). New potential antiparasitic compounds are usually tested for their killing efficacy against G. intestinalis under anaerobic conditions, in which MTZ is maximally effective. On the other hand, though commonly regarded as an ‘anaerobic pathogen,’ G. intestinalis is exposed to relatively high O2 levels in vivo, living attached to the mucosa of the proximal small intestine. It is thus important to test the effect of O2 when searching for novel potential antigiardial agents, as outlined in a previous study [Bahadur et al. (2014) Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 58, 543]. Here, 45 novel chalcone derivatives with triazolyl-quinolone scaffold were synthesized, purified, and characterized by high resolution mass spectrometry, 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance and infrared spectroscopy. Efficacy of the compounds against G. intestinalis trophozoites was tested under both anaerobic and microaerobic conditions, and selectivity was assessed in a counter-screen on human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma cells. MTZ was used as a positive control in the assays. All the tested compounds proved to be more effective against the parasite in the presence of O2, with the exception of MTZ that was less effective. Under anaerobiosis eighteen compounds were found to be as effective as MTZ or more (up to three to fourfold); the same compounds proved to be up to >100-fold more effective than MTZ under microaerobic conditions. Four of them represent potential candidates for the design of novel antigiardial drugs, being highly selective against Giardia trophozoites. This study further underlines the importance of taking O2 into account when testing novel potential antigiardial compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Bahadur
- Bio-Organic Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi Delhi, India
| | - Daniela Mastronicola
- CNR Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology Rome, Italy ; Department of Biochemical Sciences and Istituto Pasteur - Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome Rome, Italy
| | - Amit K Singh
- Bio-Organic Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi Delhi, India
| | - Hemandra K Tiwari
- Bio-Organic Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi Delhi, India
| | - Leopoldo P Pucillo
- L. Spallanzani National Institute for Infectious Diseases, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico Rome, Italy
| | - Paolo Sarti
- CNR Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology Rome, Italy ; Department of Biochemical Sciences and Istituto Pasteur - Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome Rome, Italy
| | - Brajendra K Singh
- Bio-Organic Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi Delhi, India
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19
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Pinto AF, Romão CV, Pinto LC, Huber H, Saraiva LM, Todorovic S, Cabelli D, Teixeira M. Superoxide reduction by a superoxide reductase lacking the highly conserved lysine residue. J Biol Inorg Chem 2015; 20:155-164. [PMID: 25476860 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-014-1222-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 11/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Superoxide reductases (SORs) are the most recently identified superoxide detoxification systems, being found in microorganisms from the three domains of life. These enzymes are characterized by a catalytic mononuclear iron site, with one cysteine and four histidine ligands of the ferrous active form. A lysine residue in the -EKHVP- motif, located close to the active site, has been considered to be essential for the enzyme function, by contributing to the positive surface patch that attracts the superoxide anion and by controlling the chemistry of the catalytic mechanism through a hydrogen bond network. However, we show here that this residue is substituted by non-equivalent amino acids in several putative SORs from Archaea and unicellular Eukarya. In this work, we focus on mechanistic and spectroscopic studies of one of these less common enzymes, the SOR from the hyperthermophilic Crenarchaeon Ignicoccus hospitalis. We employ pulse radiolysis fast kinetics and spectroscopic approaches to study the wild-type enzyme (-E23T24HVP-), and two mutants, T24K and E23A, the later mimicking enzymes lacking both the lysine and glutamate (a ferric ion ligand) of the motif. The efficiency of the wild-type protein and mutants in reducing superoxide is comparable to other SORs, revealing the robustness of these enzymes to single mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana F Pinto
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Apartado 127, 2781-901, Oeiras, Portugal.,Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Scheeles väg 2, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Célia V Romão
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Apartado 127, 2781-901, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Liliana C Pinto
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Apartado 127, 2781-901, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Harald Huber
- Lehrstuhl fuer Mikrobiologie, Universität Regensburg, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Lígia M Saraiva
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Apartado 127, 2781-901, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Smilja Todorovic
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Apartado 127, 2781-901, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Diane Cabelli
- Chemistry Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973-5000, USA
| | - Miguel Teixeira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Apartado 127, 2781-901, Oeiras, Portugal.
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20
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Sheng Y, Abreu IA, Cabelli DE, Maroney MJ, Miller AF, Teixeira M, Valentine JS. Superoxide dismutases and superoxide reductases. Chem Rev 2014; 114:3854-918. [PMID: 24684599 PMCID: PMC4317059 DOI: 10.1021/cr4005296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 587] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuewei Sheng
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California Los Angeles, Los
Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Isabel A. Abreu
- Instituto
de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto
de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Av. da República,
Qta. do Marquês, Estação Agronómica Nacional,
Edificio IBET/ITQB, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Diane E. Cabelli
- Chemistry
Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Michael J. Maroney
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Anne-Frances Miller
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0055, United States
| | - Miguel Teixeira
- Instituto
de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Joan Selverstone Valentine
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California Los Angeles, Los
Angeles, California 90095, United States
- Department
of Bioinspired Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea
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21
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Xu F, Jerlström-Hultqvist J, Einarsson E, Ástvaldsson Á, Svärd SG, Andersson JO. The genome of Spironucleus salmonicida highlights a fish pathogen adapted to fluctuating environments. PLoS Genet 2014; 10:e1004053. [PMID: 24516394 PMCID: PMC3916229 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Spironucleus salmonicida causes systemic infections in salmonid fish. It belongs to the group diplomonads, binucleated heterotrophic flagellates adapted to micro-aerobic environments. Recently we identified energy-producing hydrogenosomes in S. salmonicida. Here we present a genome analysis of the fish parasite with a focus on the comparison to the more studied diplomonad Giardia intestinalis. We annotated 8067 protein coding genes in the ∼12.9 Mbp S. salmonicida genome. Unlike G. intestinalis, promoter-like motifs were found upstream of genes which are correlated with gene expression, suggesting a more elaborate transcriptional regulation. S. salmonicida can utilise more carbohydrates as energy sources, has an extended amino acid and sulfur metabolism, and more enzymes involved in scavenging of reactive oxygen species compared to G. intestinalis. Both genomes have large families of cysteine-rich membrane proteins. A cluster analysis indicated large divergence of these families in the two diplomonads. Nevertheless, one of S. salmonicida cysteine-rich proteins was localised to the plasma membrane similar to G. intestinalis variant-surface proteins. We identified S. salmonicida homologs to cyst wall proteins and showed that one of these is functional when expressed in Giardia. This suggests that the fish parasite is transmitted as a cyst between hosts. The extended metabolic repertoire and more extensive gene regulation compared to G. intestinalis suggest that the fish parasite is more adapted to cope with environmental fluctuations. Our genome analyses indicate that S. salmonicida is a well-adapted pathogen that can colonize different sites in the host. Studies of model organisms are very powerful. However, to appreciate the enormous diversity of genetic and cell biological processes we need to extend the number of available model organisms. For example, there are very few model organisms for diverse microbial eukaryotes, a group of organisms which indeed represents the vast majority of the eukaryotic diversity. To this end, we have developed a system to do genetic modification on the Atlantic salmon pathogen Spironucleus salmonicida. Using this system we could show that the organism is capable of producing hydrogen within specialised compartments. Here we present the genome sequence of S. salmonicida together with a thorough annotation. We compare the results with the closest available model organism, the human intestinal parasite Giardia intestinalis. The fish parasite has a more elaborate system for regulation of gene expression, as well as a larger metabolic capacity. This indicates that S. salmonicida is a well-adapted pathogen that can deal with fluctuating environments, an important trait to be able to establish systemic infections in the host. The development of S. salmonicida into a model system will benefit the studies of fish infections, as well as cell biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feifei Xu
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, BMC, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jon Jerlström-Hultqvist
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, BMC, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Elin Einarsson
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, BMC, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ásgeir Ástvaldsson
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, BMC, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Staffan G. Svärd
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, BMC, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jan O. Andersson
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, BMC, Uppsala, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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22
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Mastronicola D, Falabella M, Testa F, Pucillo LP, Teixeira M, Sarti P, Saraiva LM, Giuffrè A. Functional characterization of peroxiredoxins from the human protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2631. [PMID: 24416465 PMCID: PMC3886907 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The microaerophilic protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis, causative of one of the most common human intestinal diseases worldwide, infects the mucosa of the proximal small intestine, where it has to cope with O2 and nitric oxide (NO). Elucidating the antioxidant defense system of this pathogen lacking catalase and other conventional antioxidant enzymes is thus important to unveil novel potential drug targets. Enzymes metabolizing O2, NO and superoxide anion (O2−•) have been recently reported for Giardia, but it is yet unknown how the parasite copes with H2O2 and peroxynitrite (ONOO−). Giardia encodes two yet uncharacterized 2-cys peroxiredoxins (Prxs), GiPrx1a and GiPrx1b. Peroxiredoxins are peroxidases implicated in virulence and drug resistance in several parasitic protozoa, able to protect from nitroxidative stress and repair oxidatively damaged molecules. GiPrx1a and a truncated form of GiPrx1b (deltaGiPrx1b) were expressed in Escherichia coli, purified and functionally characterized. Both Prxs effectively metabolize H2O2 and alkyl-hydroperoxides (cumyl- and tert-butyl-hydroperoxide) in the presence of NADPH and E. coli thioredoxin reductase/thioredoxin as the reducing system. Stopped-flow experiments show that both proteins in the reduced state react with ONOO− rapidly (k = 4×105 M−1 s−1 and 2×105 M−1 s−1 at 4°C, for GiPrx1a and deltaGiPrx1b, respectively). Consistent with a protective role against oxidative stress, expression of GiPrx1a (but not deltaGiPrx1b) is induced in parasitic cells exposed to air O2 for 24 h. Based on these results, GiPrx1a and deltaGiPrx1b are suggested to play an important role in the antioxidant defense of Giardia, possibly contributing to pathogenesis. Giardia intestinalis causes one of the most common human intestinal diseases worldwide, called giardiasis. This microorganism infects the small intestine where it has to cope with O2, nitric oxide (NO) and related reactive species that are toxic for Giardia as it lacks most of the conventional antioxidant enzymes. Understanding how this pathogen survives oxidative stress is thus important because it may help to identify novel drug targets to combat giardiasis. Some enzymes playing a role in the antioxidant defense of Giardia have been recently reported, but it is yet unknown how the parasite copes with two well-known oxidants, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and peroxynitrite (ONOO−). In this study, the Authors show that Giardia expresses two enzymes (called peroxiredoxins), yet uncharacterized, that are able not only to degrade both H2O2 and ONOO−, but also to repair damaged molecules (called hydroperoxides) that accumulate in the cell under oxidative stress conditions. These results are totally unprecedented because no enzymes with these types of functions have been reported for Giardia to date. If these two enzymes will prove to be essential for Giardia virulence in future studies, a new way will be paved towards the discovery of novel drugs to treat giardiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Micol Falabella
- Department of Biochemical Sciences and Istituto Pasteur – Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Testa
- Department of Biochemical Sciences and Istituto Pasteur – Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | | | - Miguel Teixeira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Quimica e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Paolo Sarti
- CNR Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology, Rome, Italy
- Department of Biochemical Sciences and Istituto Pasteur – Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - Lígia M. Saraiva
- Instituto de Tecnologia Quimica e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
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Horch M, Pinto AF, Utesch T, Mroginski MA, Romão CV, Teixeira M, Hildebrandt P, Zebger I. Reductive activation and structural rearrangement in superoxide reductase: a combined infrared spectroscopic and computational study. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 16:14220-30. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cp00884g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Local and global structural changes that enable reductive activation of superoxide reductase are revealed by a combined approach of infrared difference spectroscopy and computational methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Horch
- Technische Universität Berlin
- Institut für Chemie
- 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - A. F. Pinto
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier
- Universidade Nova de Lisboa
- Av. da República (EAN)
- P-2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - T. Utesch
- Technische Universität Berlin
- Institut für Chemie
- 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - M. A. Mroginski
- Technische Universität Berlin
- Institut für Chemie
- 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - C. V. Romão
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier
- Universidade Nova de Lisboa
- Av. da República (EAN)
- P-2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - M. Teixeira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier
- Universidade Nova de Lisboa
- Av. da República (EAN)
- P-2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - P. Hildebrandt
- Technische Universität Berlin
- Institut für Chemie
- 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - I. Zebger
- Technische Universität Berlin
- Institut für Chemie
- 10623 Berlin, Germany
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O(2)-dependent efficacy of novel piperidine- and piperazine-based chalcones against the human parasite Giardia intestinalis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 58:543-9. [PMID: 24217695 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00990-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Giardia intestinalis is the most frequent protozoan agent of intestinal diseases worldwide. Though commonly regarded as an anaerobic pathogen, it preferentially colonizes the fairly oxygen-rich mucosa of the proximal small intestine. Therefore, when testing new potential antigiardial drugs, O2 should be taken into account, since it also reduces the efficacy of metronidazole, the gold standard drug against giardiasis. In this study, 46 novel chalcones were synthesized by microwave-assisted Claisen-Schmidt condensation, purified, characterized by high-resolution mass spectrometry, (1)H and (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance, and infrared spectroscopy, and tested for their toxicity against G. intestinalis under standard anaerobic conditions. As a novel approach, compounds showing antigiardial activity under anaerobiosis were also assayed under microaerobic conditions, and their selectivity against parasitic cells was assessed in a counterscreen on human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma cells. Among the tested compounds, three [30(a), 31(e), and 33] were more effective in the presence of O2 than under anaerobic conditions and killed the parasite 2 to 4 times more efficiently than metronidazole under anaerobiosis. Two of them [30(a) and 31(e)] proved to be selective against parasitic cells, thus representing potential candidates for the design of novel antigiardial drugs. This study highlights the importance of testing new potential antigiardial agents not only under anaerobic conditions but also at low, more physiological O2 concentrations.
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Fe–O versus O–O bond cleavage in reactive iron peroxide intermediates of superoxide reductase. J Biol Inorg Chem 2012; 18:95-101. [DOI: 10.1007/s00775-012-0954-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2012] [Accepted: 10/15/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Caranto JD, Gebhardt LL, MacGowan CE, Limberger RJ, Kurtz DM. Treponema denticola superoxide reductase: in vivo role, in vitro reactivities, and a novel [Fe(Cys)(4)] site. Biochemistry 2012; 51:5601-10. [PMID: 22715932 DOI: 10.1021/bi300667s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
In vitro and in vivo results are presented demonstrating that superoxide reductase (SOR) from the air-sensitive oral spirochete, Treponema denticola (Td), is a principal enzymatic scavenger of superoxide in this organism. This SOR contains the characteristic non-heme [Fe(His)(4)Cys] active sites. No other metal-binding domain has been annotated for Td SOR. However, we found that Td SOR also accommodates a [Fe(Cys)(4)] site whose spectroscopic and redox properties resemble those in so-called 2Fe-SORs. Spectroscopic comparisons of the wild type and engineered Cys → Ser variants indicate that three of the Cys ligands correspond to those in [Fe(Cys)(4)] sites of "canonical" 2Fe-SORs, whereas the fourth Cys ligand residue has no counterpart in canonical 2Fe-SORs or in any other known [Fe(Cys)(4)] protein. Structural modeling is consistent with iron ligation of the "noncanonical" Cys residue across subunit interfaces of the Td SOR homodimer. The Td SOR was isolated with only a small percentage of [Fe(Cys)(4)] sites. However, quantitative formation of stable [Fe(Cys)(4)] sites was readily achieved by exposing the as-isolated protein to an iron salt, a disulfide reducing agent and air. The disulfide/dithiol status and iron occupancy of the Td SOR [Fe(Cys)(4)] sites could, thus, reflect intracellular redox status, particularly during periods of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D Caranto
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
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