Hypermethylation of the Keap1 gene inactivates its function, promotes Nrf2 nuclear accumulation, and is involved in arsenite-induced human keratinocyte transformation

Calcitriol Inhibits NaAsO2 Triggered Hepatic Stellate Cells Activation and Extracellular Matrix Oversecretion by Activating Nrf2 Signaling Pathway Through Vitamin D Receptor

Previous studies, including our own, have demonstrated that arsenic exposure can induce liver fibrosis, while the underlying mechanism remains unclear and there is currently no effective pharmacological intervention available. Recent research has demonstrated that vitamin D supplementation can ameliorate liver fibrosis caused by various etiologies, potentially through modulation of the Nrf2 signaling pathways. However, it remains unclear whether vitamin D intervention can mitigate arsenic-caused liver fibrosis. As is known hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation and extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition are pivotal in the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis. In this study, we investigated the intervention effect of calcitriol (a form of active vitamin D) on arsenite-triggered Lx-2 cells (a human hepatic stellate cell line) activation and ECM oversecretion. Additionally, we also elucidated the role and mechanism of Nrf2 antioxidant signaling pathway. Our results demonstrated that calcitriol intervention significantly inhibits Lx-2 cell activation and ECM oversecretion induced by arsenite exposure. Additionally, calcitriol activates Nrf2 and its downstream antioxidant enzyme expression in Lx-2 cells, thereby reducing ROS overproduction caused by arsenite exposure. Further investigation reveals that calcitriol activates the Nrf2 signaling pathway and inhibits arsenite-triggered Lx-2 cell activation and ECM oversecretion by targeting vitamin D receptor (VDR). In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that vitamin D intervention can effectively inhibit HSC activation and ECM oversecretion triggered by arsenite exposure through its antioxidant activity. This provides a novel strategy for targeted nutritional intervention in the treatment of arsenic-induced liver fibrosis.

Reductive stress induced by NRF2/G6PD through glucose metabolic reprogramming promotes malignant transformation in Arsenite-exposed human keratinocytes

Our previous research found that the nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) protein was sustained activated in malignant transformation of human keratinocyte (HaCaT cells) caused by NaAsO2, but the role of NRF2 in it remains unknown. In this study, malignant transformation of HaCaT cells and labeled HaCaT cells used to detect mitochondrial glutathione levels (Mito-Grx1-roGFP2 HaCaT cells) were induced by 1.0 μM NaAsO2. Redox levels were measured at passages 0, early stage (passages 1, 7, 14), later stage (passages 21, 28 and 35) of arsenite-treated HaCaT cells. Oxidative stress levels increased at early stage. The NRF2 pathway was sustained activated. Cells and mitochondrial reductive stress levels (GSH/GSSG and NADPH/NADP+) increased. The mitochondrial GSH/GSSG levels of Mito-Grx1-roGFP2 HaCaT cells also increased. The indicators of glucose metabolism glucose-6-phosphate, lactate and the glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) levels increased, however Acetyl-CoA level decreased. Expression levels of glucose metabolic enzymes increased. After transfection with NRF2 siRNA, the indicators of glucose metabolism were reversed. After transfection with NRF2 or G6PD siRNA, cells and mitochondrial reductive stress levels decreased and the malignant phenotype was reversed. In conclusion, oxidative stress occurred in the early stage and the NRF2 was sustained high expression. In the later stage, increased NRF2/G6PD through glucose metabolic reprogramming induced reductive stress, thereby leading to malignant transformation.

Inhibition of Histone H3K18 Acetylation-Dependent Antioxidant Pathways Involved in Arsenic-Induced Liver Injury in Rats and the Protective Effect of Rosa roxburghii Tratt Juice

Arsenic is a common environmental toxicant. Long-term arsenic exposure can induce various types of liver injury, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear, so effective prevention and treatment measures are unknown. This study aims to explore the mechanism of arsenic-induced rat liver injury based on the histone H3K18 acetylation-dependent antioxidant pathway and to identify the role of a medicinal and edible resource, Rosa roxburghii Tratt juice, in combating it. Hepatic steatosis and inflammatory cell infiltration were observed in rats exposed to different doses of NaAsO₂ using histopathological measurement. Increased 8-OHdG and MDA in liver tissue corroborated hepatic oxidative damage. We further found that a reduction in H3K18ac in the liver showed a dose-response relationship, with an increase in the NaAsO₂ treatment dose, and it was remarkably associated with increased 8-OHdG and MDA. The results of ChIP-qPCR identified that the decreased enrichment of H3K18ac in promoters of the Hspa1a and Hspb8 genes culminated in the inhibition of the genes' expression, which was found to be involved in the aggravation of hepatic oxidative damage induced by arsenic. Notably, Rosa roxburghii Tratt juice was found to reduce 8-OHdG and MDA in the liver, thereby alleviating the histopathological lesions induced by arsenic, which was modulated by recovering the H3K18ac-dependent transcriptional activation of the Hspa1a and Hspb8 genes. Taken together, we provide a novel epigenetics insight into clarifying the mechanism of arsenic-induced liver injury and its rescue by Rosa roxburghii Tratt juice.

The KEAP1-NRF2 pathway: Targets for therapy and role in cancer

The KEAP1-NRF2 pathway is the key regulator of cellular defense against both extrinsic and intrinsic oxidative and electrophilic stimuli. Since its discovery in the 1990s, its seminal role in various disease pathologies has become well appreciated, motivating research to elucidate the intricacies of NRF2 signaling and its downstream effects to identify novel targets for therapy. In this graphical review, we present an updated overview of the KEAP1-NRF2 signaling, focusing on the progress made within the past ten years. Specifically, we highlight the advances made in understanding the mechanism of activation of NRF2, resulting in novel discoveries in its therapeutic targeting. Furthermore, we will summarize new findings in the rapidly expanding field of NRF2 in cancer, with important implications for its diagnostics and treatment.

Hypermethylation of Mig-6 gene promoter region inactivates its function, leading to EGFR/ERK signaling hyperphosphorylation, and is involved in arsenite-induced hepatic stellate cells activation and extracellular matrix deposition

Arsenic is a widespread naturally contaminant. Previous studies have highlighted the issue of liver fibrosis induced by arsenic exposure, while the exact mechanisms are not yet fully understood. Recent studies suggest that Mig-6/EGFR/ERK signaling appear to play important roles in fibrosis caused by various factors. In this study, we focused on the epigenetic modification combined with the signaling dysregulation to validate the role of Mig-6 in regulating EGFR/ERK signaling in arsenite-induced human hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation. Our results revealed that arsenite exposure induced HSCs activation and extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition. The EGFR/ERK signaling was significantly hyperphosphorylated in arsenite-exposed HSCs, and Mig-6 inactivation was involved in arsenite induced hyperphosphorylation of EGFR and activation of HSCs. Additionally, we further illustrated that hypermethylation of Mig-6 gene promoter region was responsible for the downregulation of Mig-6 induced by arsenite exposure. Moreover, 5-Aza-dC (a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor) can efficiently rescue hypermethylation of Mig-6 gene, decrease the hyperphosphorylation of EGFR/ERK signaling, then reverse arsenite induced HSCs activation. Taken together, the present study strongly suggests that inactivating of Mig-6 function by hypermethylation of its promoter region leading to hyperphosphorylation of EGFR/ERK signaling, and is involved in arsenite-induced HSCs activation and ECM deposition.

Redox-Regulation in Cancer Stem Cells

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) represent a small subset of slowly dividing cells with tumor-initiating ability. They can self-renew and differentiate into all the distinct cell populations within a tumor. CSCs are naturally resistant to chemotherapy or radiotherapy. CSCs, thus, can repopulate a tumor after therapy and are responsible for recurrence of disease. Stemness manifests itself through, among other things, the expression of stem cell markers, the ability to induce sphere formation and tumor growth in vivo, and resistance to chemotherapeutics and irradiation. Stemness is maintained by keeping levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) low, which is achieved by enhanced activity of antioxidant pathways. Here, cellular sources of ROS, antioxidant pathways employed by CSCs, and underlying mechanisms to overcome resistance are discussed.

The Potential Key Role of the NRF2/NQO1 Pathway in the Health Effects of Arsenic Pollution on SCC

Arsenic is widely present in nature and is a common environmental poison that seriously damages human health. Chronic exposure to arsenic is a major environmental poisoning factor that promotes cell proliferation and leads to malignant transformation. However, its molecular mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we found that arsenite can promote the transformation of immortalized human keratinocyte cells (HaCaT) from the G0/G1 phase to S phase and demonstrated malignant phenotypes. This phenomenon is accompanied by obviously elevated levels of NRF2, NQO1, Cyclin E, and Cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2). Silencing the NRF2 expression with small interfering RNA (siRNA) in arsenite-transformed (T-HaCaT) cells was shown to reverse the malignant phenotype. Furthermore, the siRNA silencing of NQO1 significantly decreased the levels of the cyclin E-CDK2 complex, inhibiting the G0/G1 to S phase cell cycle progression and transformation to the T-HaCaT phenotypes. Thus, we hypothesized that the NRF2/NQO1 pathway played a key role in the arsenite-induced malignancy of HaCaT cells. By increasing the expression of Cyclin E-CDK2, the NRF2/NQO1 pathway can affect cell cycle progression and cell proliferation. A new common health effect mechanism of arsenic carcinogenesis has been identified; thus, it would contribute to the development of novel treatments to prevent and treat skin cancer caused by arsenic.

Physical-Exercise-Induced Antioxidant Effects on the Brain and Skeletal Muscle

Erythroid-related nuclear factor 2 (NRF2) and the antioxidant-responsive-elements (ARE) signaling pathway are the master regulators of cell antioxidant defenses, playing a key role in maintaining cellular homeostasis, a scenario in which proper mitochondrial function is essential. Increasing evidence indicates that the regular practice of physical exercise increases cellular antioxidant defenses by activating NRF2 signaling. This manuscript reviewed classic and ongoing research on the beneficial effects of exercise on the antioxidant system in both the brain and skeletal muscle.

Sustained high expression of NRF2 and its target genes induces dysregulation of cellular proliferation and apoptosis is associated with arsenite-induced malignant transformation of human bronchial epithelial cells

In arsenic toxicity, activation of the erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) pathway is regarded as a driver of cancer development and progression; however, the mechanisms by which NRF2 gene expression regulates cell cycle progression and mediates pathways of cellular proliferation and apoptosis in arsenic-induced lung carcinogenesis are poorly understood. In this study, we explored the regulatory functions of NRF2 expression and its target genes in immortalized human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells continuously exposed to 1.0 μM sodium arsenite over approximately 43 passages (22 weeks). The experimental treatment induced malignant transformation in HBE cells, characterized by increased cellular proliferation and soft agar clone formation, as well as cell migration, and accelerated cell cycle progression from G0/G1 to S phase with increased levels of cyclin E-CDK2 complex,decreased cellular apoptosis rate. Moreover, we observed a sustained increase in NRF2 protein levels and those of its target gene products (NQO1, BCL-2) with concurrently decreased expression of apoptosis-related proteins (BAX, Cleaved-caspase-3/Caspase-3 and CHOP) and increased expression of the anti-apoptotic protein MCL-1. Silencing NRF2 expression with small interfering RNA (siRNA) in arsenite-transformed (T-HBE) cells was shown to reverse the malignant phenotype. Further, siRNA silencing of NQO1 significantly decreased levels of the cyclin E-CDK2 complex, inhibiting G0/G1 to S phase cell cycle progression and transformation to the T-HBE phenotypes. This study demonstrated a novel role for the NRF2/NQO1 signaling pathway in mediating arsenite-induced cell transformation by increasing the expression of cyclin E-CDK2, and accelerating the cell cycle and cell proliferation. Arsenite promotes activation of the NRF2/BCL-2 signaling pathway inhibited CHOP increasing cellular resistance to apoptosis and further promoting malignant transformation.

Long-term arsenite exposure decreases autophagy by increased release of Nrf2 in transformed human keratinocytes

Autophagy dysfunction in arsenite toxicity plays critical roles in cancer development and progression. However, the precise mechanisms of arsenite-induced skin cancer by blocking autophagy remain uncertain. Herein, this study investigated molecular mechanisms of arsenite-induced autophagy dysfunction mediated by nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) in human keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells. The effects of long-term arsenite exposure on Nrf2 activation and autophagy were established using a siRNA interference assay and western blots. A specific siRNA of Nrf2 was used to verify that autophagy induced by arsenite can be influenced by Nrf2. Specific inhibitors of PI3K (LY294002) and mTOR (Rapamycin) and siRNA of Nrf2 were employed to verify that upregulation of Nrf2 correlated with activating the PI3K/Akt pathway. Downstream mTOR and Bcl2 were upregulated by Nrf2 signaling, inhibiting autophagy initiation in arsenite-exposed HaCaT cells. In conclusion, our data suggest that long-term exposure to arsenite promotes Nrf2 upregulation via the PI3K/Akt pathway and, along with upregulation of downstream mTOR and Bcl2, contributes to autophagy dysfunction in transformed HaCaT cells. This work provides new insights into the mechanisms underlying arsenite-induced autophagy dysfunction in cancer promotion and malignancy progression.

Distinct Mechanisms Are Responsible for Nrf2-Keap1 Pathway Activation at Different Stages of Rat Hepatocarcinogenesis

Activation of the Nrf2-Keap1 pathway, the main intracellular defense against environmental stress, has been observed in several human cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Here, we assessed whether distinct mechanisms of activation may be involved at different stages of hepatocarcinogenesis. We adopted an experimental model consisting of treatment with diethylnitrosamine (DENA) followed by a choline-devoid methionine-deficient (CMD) diet for 4 months. The CMD diet was then replaced with a basal diet, and the animals were killed at 6, 10 or 13 months after DENA injection. Nrf2 activation occurred at early steps of hepatocarcinogenesis and persisted throughout the tumorigenic process. While Nrf2 mutations were extremely frequent at early steps (90%), their incidence diminished with the progression to malignancy (25%). Conversely, while p62 was almost undetectable in early nodules, its accumulation occurred in HCCs, suggesting that Nrf2 pathway activation at late stages is mainly due to Keap1 sequestration by p62. We demonstrate that, in a model of hepatocarcinogenesis resembling human non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, Nrf2 mutations are the earliest molecular changes responsible for the activation of the Nrf2-Keap1 pathway. The progressive loss of mutations associated with a concomitant p62 accumulation implies that distinct mechanisms are responsible for Nrf2-Keap1 pathway activation at different stages of hepatocarcinogenesis.

Oxidative stress in alcohol-related liver disease

Alcohol consumption is one of the leading causes of the global burden of disease and results in high healthcare and economic costs. Heavy alcohol misuse leads to alcohol-related liver disease, which is responsible for a significant proportion of alcohol-attributable deaths globally. Other than reducing alcohol consumption, there are currently no effective treatments for alcohol-related liver disease. Oxidative stress refers to an imbalance in the production and elimination of reactive oxygen species and antioxidants. It plays important roles in several aspects of alcohol-related liver disease pathogenesis. Here, we review how chronic alcohol use results in oxidative stress through increased metabolism via the cytochrome P450 2E1 system producing reactive oxygen species, acetaldehyde and protein and DNA adducts. These trigger inflammatory signaling pathways within the liver leading to expression of pro-inflammatory mediators causing hepatocyte apoptosis and necrosis. Reactive oxygen species exposure also results in mitochondrial stress within hepatocytes causing structural and functional dysregulation of mitochondria and upregulating apoptotic signaling. There is also evidence that oxidative stress as well as the direct effect of alcohol influences epigenetic regulation. Increased global histone methylation and acetylation and specific histone acetylation inhibits antioxidant responses and promotes expression of key pro-inflammatory genes. This review highlights aspects of the role of oxidative stress in disease pathogenesis that warrant further study including mitochondrial stress and epigenetic regulation. Improved understanding of these processes may identify novel targets for therapy.

The Molecular Mechanisms Regulating the KEAP1-NRF2 Pathway

The KEAP1-NRF2 pathway is the principal protective response to oxidative and electrophilic stresses. Under homeostatic conditions, KEAP1 forms part of an E3 ubiquitin ligase, which tightly regulates the activity of the transcription factor NRF2 by targeting it for ubiquitination and proteasome-dependent degradation. In response to stress, an intricate molecular mechanism facilitated by sensor cysteines within KEAP1 allows NRF2 to escape ubiquitination, accumulate within the cell, and translocate to the nucleus, where it can promote its antioxidant transcription program. Recent advances have revealed that KEAP1 contains multiple stress sensors and inactivation modalities, which together allow diverse cellular inputs, from oxidative stress and cellular metabolites to dysregulated autophagy, to regulate NRF2 activity. This integration of the KEAP1-NRF2 system into multiple cellular signaling and metabolic pathways places NRF2 activation as a critical regulatory node in many disease phenotypes and suggests that the pharmaceutical modulation of NRF2's cytoprotective activity will be beneficial for human health in a broad range of noncommunicable diseases.

Possible differences in the mechanism of malignant transformation of HaCaT cells by arsenite and its dimethyl metabolites, particularly dimethylthioarsenics

BACKGROUND

As a confirmed human carcinogen, arsenic can cause skin cancer, lung cancer, etc. However, its carcinogenic mechanism is still unclear. In recent years, the oxidative stress hypothesis has become widely accepted. In mammals it has been found that arsenic can be converted to dimethylarsinous acid (DMAIII) and dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTAV) through a series of methylation and redox reactions. DMAIII and DMMTAV are highly toxic.

METHODS

Human keratinocytes (HaCaT) were exposed to different concentrations of NaAsO2 (IAsIII), DMMTAV and DMAIII for 24 h. Reactive oxygen species (hydrogen peroxide and superoxide), oxidative damage markers (8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine and malondialdehyde), and antioxidant markers (glutathione and superoxide dismutase) were measured. In addition, sulfane sulfurs were measured in HaCaT cells and a cell-free system.

RESULTS

In the DMMTAV and DMAIII treatment groups, the levels of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide in HaCaT cells were higher than in the IAsIII treatment groups at the same dose. Levels of 8-OHdG and MDA in the DMMTAV and DMAIII treatment groups were also higher than those in the IAsIII treatment groups at the same dose. However, in the DMMTAV and DMAIII treatment groups, the levels of GSH and SOD activity were lower than that in the IAsIII treatment groups. In DMMTAV-treated HaCaT cells, sulfane sulfurs were produced. Further, it was found that DMMTAV could react with DMDTAV to form persulfide in the cell-free system, which may explain the mechanism of the formation of sulfane sulfurs in DMMTAV-treated HaCaT cells.

CONCLUSIONS

DMMTAV and DMAIII more readily induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cause oxidative damage in HaCaT cells than inorganic arsenic. Further, the persulfide formed by the reaction of DMMTAV and DMDTAV produced from the metabolism of DMMTAV may induce a stronger reductive defense mechanism than GSH against the intracellular oxidative stress of DMMTAV. However, the cells exposed to arsenite are transformed by the continuous nuclear translocation of Nrf2 due to oxidative stress, and the persulfide from dimethylthioarsenics may promote Nrf2 by the combination with thiol groups, especially redox control key protein, Keap1, eventually cause nuclear translocation of sustained Nrf2.

Neuroprotective effect of salvianolate on cerebral ischaemia-reperfusion injury in rats by inhibiting the Caspase-3 signal pathway

Salvianolate has been widely used for the treatment of cerebrovascular diseases. However, the detailed molecular mechanism of how it alleviates cerebral ischaemia-reperfusion injury is not well understood. In the present study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of salvianolate in acute cerebral infarction using the PC12 cell oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) model in vitro and the rat transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model in vivo. The results showed that the salvianolate significantly reduced the level of reactive oxygen species and inhibited the Caspase-3 signalling pathway in vitro; at the same time, in vivo experiments showed that salvianolate obviously reduced the infarct area (12.9%) and repaired cognitive function compared with the model group (28.28%). In conclusion, our data demonstrated that the salvianolate effectively alleviated cerebral ischaemia-reperfusion injury via suppressing the Caspase-3 signalling pathway.

Radon induced mitochondrial dysfunction in human bronchial epithelial cells and epithelial-mesenchymal transition with long-term exposure

Radon is a naturally occurring radionuclide, which has a wide environmental distributed. It emits multiple high linear energy transfer (LET) alpha particles during radiative decay, and has been regarded as a human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Currently, residential radon exposure is considered as the second highest cause of lung cancer and the leading cause among nonsmokers. Radon exposure leads to genomic instability, which causes the accumulation of multiple genetic changes and leads to cancer development. However, the molecular basis underlying carcinogenesis, especially the radon-induced changes to mitochondria, has not been fully elucidated. The aim of this study was to explore the dynamic changes in mitochondria along with the cell transformations induced by long-term radon exposure. A malignant transformation model of BEAS-2B cells was established with upto 40 times the usual radon exposure (20 000 Bq m-3, 30 min each time every 3 days). Long-term radon exposure induced EMT-like transformation of epithelial cells in our study, evidenced by decrease in epithelial markers and increase in mesenchymal markers, as well as the loss of cell-cell adhesion and alterations to the morphology of cells from compact shape to a spindle shaped, fibroblast-like morphology. Additionally, the proliferation and migration of cells were increased and apoptosis was decreased with long-term radon exposure. Furthermore, mitochondrial function was up-regulated and the levels of oxidative stress were repressed with long-term radon exposure. Our work explored the dynamic changes of mitochondrial in radon induced malignant transformation of lung bronchial epithelial cells, which could partially elucidate the role of mitochondria in radon induced cell malignancy.

Targeting the cell signaling pathway Keap1-Nrf2 as a therapeutic strategy for adenocarcinomas of the lung

INTRODUCTION

Kelch-like ECH associated protein 1/Nuclear factor erythroid 2-like factor 2 (Keap1-Nrf2) signaling plays a pivotal role in response to oxidative stress in lung cancer. Mutations in KEAP1/NFE2L2 genes always cause persistent Nrf2 activation in lung cancer cells that confer therapeutic resistance and aggressive tumorigenic activity, dictating either poor prognosis or short duration of response to chemotherapy in clinical observations. Areas covered: We provide a review of the mechanisms underlying the regulation of Keap1-Nrf2 at different stages, including genetic mutations, epigenetic modifications, translational/post-translational alterations, and protein-protein interactions. Based on the current knowledge, we discuss the possibilities of intervening Keap1-Nrf2 in lung adenocarcinoma as a therapeutic target. Expert opinion: It is prevalently conceived that Keap1-Nrf2 signaling plays different roles at diverse stages of cancer. Although various Nrf2 or Keap1 inhibitors have been reported during the last decades, none of these inhibitors are currently under clinical studies or in clinical applications, suggesting that sole inhibition of Nrf2 might not be sufficient to suppress tumor growth. On the basis of current studies, we suggest that the rational combination of Nrf2 suppression with chemical agents which cause enhanced oxidative imbalance or abnormal metabolism would be promising in the treatment of lung adenocarcinoma.

Dose- and time-dependent effects of triethylene glycol dimethacrylate on the proteome of human THP-1 monocytes

Triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) is commonly used in polymer resin-based dental materials. This study investigated the molecular mechanisms of TEGDMA toxicity by identifying its time- and dose-dependent effects on the proteome of human THP-1 monocytes. The effects of different concentrations (0.07-5 mM) and exposure times (0-72 h) of TEGDMA on cell viability, proliferation, and morphology were determined using a real-time viability assay, automated cell counting, and electron microscopy, and laid the fundament for choice of exposure scenarios in the proteomic experiments. Solvents were not used, as TEGDMA is soluble in cell culture medium (determined by photon correlation spectroscopy). Cells were metabolically labeled [using the stable isotope labeled amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) strategy], and exposed to 0, 0.3 or 2.5 mM TEGDMA for 6 or 16 h before liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analyses. Regulated proteins were analyzed in the STRING database. Cells exposed to 0.3 mM TEGDMA showed increased viability and time-dependent upregulation of proteins associated with stress/oxidative stress, autophagy, and cytoprotective functions. Cells exposed to 2.5 mM TEGDMA showed diminished viability and a protein expression profile associated with oxidative stress, DNA damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cell cycle inhibition. Altered expression of immune genes was observed in both groups. The study provides novel knowledge about TEGDMA toxicity at the proteomic level. Of note, even low doses of TEGDMA induced a substantial cellular response.

A distinct class of antioxidant response elements is consistently activated in tumors with NRF2 mutations

NRF2 is a redox-responsive transcription factor that regulates expression of cytoprotective genes via its interaction with DNA sequences known as antioxidant response elements (AREs). NRF2 activity is induced by oxidative stress, but oxidative stress is not the only context in which NRF2 can be activated. Mutations that disrupt the interaction between NRF2 and KEAP1, an inhibitor of NRF2, lead to NRF2 hyperactivation and promote oncogenesis. The mechanisms underlying NRF2's oncogenic properties remain unclear, but likely involve aberrant expression of select NRF2 target genes. We tested this possibility using an integrative genomics approach to get a precise view of the direct NRF2 target genes dysregulated in tumors with NRF2 hyperactivating mutations. This approach revealed a core set of 32 direct NRF2 targets that are consistently upregulated in NRF2 hyperactivated tumors. This set of NRF2 "cancer target genes" includes canonical redox-related NRF2 targets, as well as target genes that have not been previously linked to NRF2 activation. Importantly, NRF2-driven upregulation of this gene set is largely independent of the organ system where the tumor developed. One key distinguishing feature of these NRF2 cancer target genes is that they are regulated by high affinity AREs that fall within genomic regions possessing a ubiquitously permissive chromatin signature. This implies that these NRF2 cancer target genes are responsive to oncogenic NRF2 in most tissues because they lack the regulatory constraints that restrict expression of most other NRF2 target genes. This NRF2 cancer target gene set also serves as a reliable proxy for NRF2 activity, and high NRF2 activity is associated with significant decreases in survival in multiple cancer types. Overall, the pervasive upregulation of these NRF2 cancer targets across multiple cancers, and their association with negative outcomes, suggests that these will be central to dissecting the functional implications of NRF2 hyperactivation in several cancer contexts.

Parthenolide prevents resistance of MDA-MB231 cells to doxorubicin and mitoxantrone: the role of Nrf2

Triple-negative breast cancer is a group of aggressive cancers with poor prognosis owing to chemoresistance, recurrence and metastasis. New strategies are required that could reduce chemoresistance and increases the effectiveness of chemotherapy. The results presented in this paper, showing that parthenolide (PN) prevents drug resistance in MDA-MB231 cells, represent a contribution to one of these possible strategies. MDA-MB231 cells, the most studied line of TNBC cells, were submitted to selection treatment with mitoxantrone (Mitox) and doxorubicin (DOX). The presence of resistant cells was confirmed through the measurement of the resistance index. Cells submitted to this treatment exhibited a remarkable increment of NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) level, which was accompanied by upregulation of catalase, MnSOD, HSP70, Bcl-2 and P-glycoprotein. Moreover, as a consequence of overexpression of Nrf2 and correlated proteins, drug-treated cells exhibited a much lower ability than parental cells to generate ROS in response to a suitable stimulation. The addition of PN (2.0 μM) to Mitox and DOX, over the total selection time, prevented both the induction of resistance and the overexpression of Nrf2 and correlated proteins, whereas the cells showed a good ability to generate ROS in response to adequate stimulation. To demonstrate that Nrf2 exerted a crucial role in the induction of resistance, the cells were transiently transfected with a specific small interfering RNA for Nrf2. Similarly to the effects induced by PN, downregulation of Nrf2 was accompanied by reductions in the levels of catalase, MnSOD, HSP70 and Bcl-2, prevention of chemoresistance and increased ability to generate ROS under stimulation. In conclusion, our results show that PN inhibited the development of the resistance toward Mitox and DOX, and suggest that these effects were correlated with the prevention of the overexpression of Nrf2 and its target proteins, which occurred in the cells submitted to drug treatment.

Antioxidants and HNE in redox homeostasis

Under physiological conditions, cells are in a stable state known as redox homeostasis, which is maintained by the balance between continuous ROS/RNS generation and several mechanisms involved in antioxidant activity. ROS overproduction results in alterations in the redox homeostasis that promote oxidative damage to major components of the cell, including the biomembrane phospholipids. Lipid peroxidation subsequently generates a diverse set of products, including α,β-unsaturated aldehydes. Of these products, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) is the most studied aldehyde on the basis of its involvement in cellular physiology and pathology. This review summarizes the current knowledge in the field of HNE generation, metabolism, and detoxification, as well as its interactions with various cellular macromolecules (protein, phospholipid, and nucleic acid). The formation of HNE-protein adducts enables HNE to participate in multi-step regulation of cellular metabolic pathways that include signaling and transcription of antioxidant enzymes, pro-inflammatory factors, and anti-apoptotic proteins. The most widely described roles for HNE in the signaling pathways are associated with its activation of kinases, as well as transcription factors that are responsible for redox homeostasis (Ref-1, Nrf2, p53, NFκB, and Hsf1). Depending on its level, HNE exerts harmful or protective effects associated with the induction of antioxidant defense mechanisms. These effects make HNE a key player in maintaining redox homeostasis, as well as producing imbalances in this system that participate in aging and the development of pathological conditions.

Role of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 in the age-resistant properties of the glaucoma trabecular meshwork

Glaucoma is a major cause of irreversible blindness. Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) regulates the expression of numerous antioxidants within cells and is therefore a focus of current ophthalmic research. To determine the roles of Nrf2 in mediating the glaucoma trabecular meshwork (GTM), the present study evaluated the levels of Nrf2 expression in GTM and human trabecular meshwork (HTM) cells by reverse-transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis. It was principally observed that Nrf2 expression was downregulated in GTM cells. In addition, to determine the influence of Nrf2 on the apoptosis and proliferation of GTM and HTM cells, transfection assays and western blotting were performed to evaluate the expression of apoptosis-related proteins. The results of the current study indicated that Nrf2 may promote viability and reduce apoptosis in GTM and HTM cells. Collectively, these data suggest that Nrf2 may be a novel therapeutic target to treat glaucoma.

Antioxidants for Healthy Skin: The Emerging Role of Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptors and Nuclear Factor-Erythroid 2-Related Factor-2

Skin is the outermost part of the body and is, thus, inevitably exposed to UV rays and environmental pollutants. Oxidative stress by these hazardous factors accelerates skin aging and induces skin inflammation and carcinogenesis. Aryl hydrocarbon receptors (AHRs) are chemical sensors that are abundantly expressed in epidermal keratinocytes and mediate the production of reactive oxygen species. To neutralize or minimize oxidative stress, the keratinocytes also express nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor-2 (NRF2), which is a master switch for antioxidant signaling. Notably, there is fine-tuned crosstalk between AHR and NRF2, which mutually increase or decrease their activation states. Many NRF2-mediated antioxidant phytochemicals are capable of up- and downmodulating AHR signaling. The precise mechanisms by which these phytochemicals differentially affect the AHR and NRF2 system remain largely unknown and warrant future investigation.

Regulation of Keap1-Nrf2 signaling: The role of epigenetics

Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1)-nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NFE2L2/Nrf2) signaling pathway is a pivotal player in the antioxidant response to oxidative and electrophilic stress and can play a role in many human diseases. Activation or inhibition of Nrf2 has been an approach to treating many diseases such as cancer and regulation of this pathway has been thoroughly studied. Recently, epigenetics has emerged as another layer for regulating Keap1-Nrf2. Epigenetics modification is defined as heritable changes to gene expression without changing DNA sequence and various modifications have been found to be involved in regulating Keap1-Nrf2. Therefore, targeting these epigenetic changes on Keap1-Nrf2 provides a potential pathway for modulating Keap1-Nrf2 to treat disease. In this review, several important and recent findings on epigenetic regulation and perspectives on Keap1-Nrf2 are discussed and shared.

Gene regulatory effects of disease-associated variation in the NRF2 network

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are both a natural byproduct of oxidative metabolism and an undesirable byproduct of many environmental stressors, can damage all classes of cellular macromolecules and promote diseases from cancer to neurodegeneration. The actions of ROS are mitigated by the transcription factor NRF2, which regulates expression of antioxidant genes via its interaction with cis-regulatory antioxidant response elements (AREs). However, despite the seemingly straightforward relationship between the opposing forces of ROS and NRF2, regulatory precision in the NRF2 network is essential. Genetic variants that alter NRF2 stability or alter ARE sequences have been linked to a range of diseases. NRF2 hyperactivating mutations are associated with tumorigenesis. On the subtler end of the spectrum, single nucleotide variants (SNVs) that alter individual ARE sequences have been linked to neurodegenerative disorders including progressive supranuclear palsy and Parkinson’s disease, as well as other diseases. Although the human health implications of NRF2 dysregulation have been recognized for some time, a systems level view of this regulatory network is beginning to highlight key NRF2-targeted AREs consistently associated with disease.

The Dual Roles of NRF2 in Cancer

NRF2 has been traditionally considered as a tumor suppressor because its cytoprotective functions are deemed to be the main cellular defense mechanism against exogenous and endogenous insults, including xenobiotics and oxidative stress. However, several recent studies demonstrate that hyperactivation of the NRF2 pathway creates an environment that favors the survival of normal as well as malignant cells, protecting them against oxidative stress, chemotherapeutic agents, and radiotherapy. In a rapidly advancing field, this review summarizes some of the known mechanisms by which NRF2 can exert its oncogenic functions, and describes the current status of NRF2 inhibitors, providing a clear rationale for the consideration of NRF2 as a powerful putative therapeutic target in cancer treatment.