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Cerri J, Musto C, Ferretti M, Delogu M, Bertolino S, Martinoli A, Bisi F, Preatoni DG, Tattoni C, Apollonio M. COVID-19 could accelerate the decline in recreational hunting: A natural experiment from Northern Italy. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0309017. [PMID: 39150926 PMCID: PMC11329146 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0309017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 08/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Although many studies highlighted the potential of COVID-19 to reshape existing models of wildlife management, empirical research on this topic has been scarce, particularly in Europe. We investigated the potential of COVID-19 pandemic to accelerate the ongoing decline in an aging population of recreational hunters in Italy. Namely, we modelled spatiotemporal trends between 2011 and 2021 in the number of recreational hunters in 50 Italian provinces with a varying incidence of COVID-19, and temporally delayed waves of infection. Compared to projections from 2011-2019 data, we detected a lower number of hunters who enrolled for the hunting season, both in 2020 (14 provinces) and in 2021 (15 provinces). The provinces with the highest incidence of COVID-19 in the Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna regions were also those experiencing the most marked decrease in hunting participation. Our findings revealed that a wildlife management system based on recreational hunting can be rapidly destabilized by epidemics and their associated public health measures, particularly when the average age of hunters is high, like in Italy. Considered the high incidence attained by COVID-19 in many European countries, where hunters are pivotal for the management of large ungulates and where they were already declining before the pandemic, our findings call for further large-scale research about the impact of COVID-19 on hunting participation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacopo Cerri
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Carmela Musto
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Mauro Delogu
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Sandro Bertolino
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e Biologia dei Sistemi, Università degli Studi di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Adriano Martinoli
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Università degli Studi dell'Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Francesco Bisi
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Università degli Studi dell'Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | | | - Clara Tattoni
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Università degli Studi dell'Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Marco Apollonio
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
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2
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Descalzo E, Ferreras P, Martínez‐Jauregui M, Soliño M, Glikman JA, Díaz‐Ruiz F, Delibes‐Mateos M. Assessing the distribution of elusive non‐game carnivores: are hunters valuable informants? J Wildl Manage 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.22377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Esther Descalzo
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos (IREC), CSIC‐UCLM‐JCCM Ronda de Toledo 12 13071 Ciudad Real Spain
| | - Pablo Ferreras
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos (IREC), CSIC‐UCLM‐JCCM Ronda de Toledo 12 13071 Ciudad Real Spain
| | - María Martínez‐Jauregui
- Instituto de Ciencias Forestales (ICIFOR), INIA‐CSIC Ctra. de La Coruña km 7.5 28040 Madrid Spain
| | - Mario Soliño
- Institute of Marine Research−CSIC Department of Ecology and Marine Resources C/Eduardo Cabello 6, Vigo 36208 Pontevedra Spain
| | - Jenny Anne Glikman
- Instituto de Estudios Sociales Avanzados (IESA‐CSIC), Campo Santo de los Mártires 7 14004 Córdoba Spain
| | | | - Miguel Delibes‐Mateos
- Instituto de Estudios Sociales Avanzados (IESA‐CSIC), Campo Santo de los Mártires 7 14004 Córdoba Spain
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3
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Larroque J, Balkenhol N. A simulation-based evaluation of methods for estimating census population size of terrestrial game species from genetically-identified parent-offspring pairs. PeerJ 2023; 11:e15151. [PMID: 37070094 PMCID: PMC10105560 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Estimates of wildlife population size are critical for conservation and management, but accurate estimates are difficult to obtain for many species. Several methods have recently been developed that estimate abundance using kinship relationships observed in genetic samples, particularly parent-offspring pairs. While these methods are similar to traditional Capture-Mark-Recapture, they do not need physical recapture, as individuals are considered recaptured if a sample contains one or more close relatives. This makes methods based on genetically-identified parent-offspring pairs particularly interesting for species for which releasing marked animals back into the population is not desirable or not possible (e.g., harvested fish or game species). However, while these methods have successfully been applied in commercially important fish species, in the absence of life-history data, they are making several assumptions unlikely to be met for harvested terrestrial species. They assume that a sample contains only one generation of parents and one generation of juveniles of the year, while more than two generations can coexist in the hunting bags of long-lived species, or that the sampling probability is the same for each individual, an assumption that is violated when fecundity and/or survival depend on sex or other individual traits. In order to assess the usefulness of kin-based methods to estimate population sizes of terrestrial game species, we simulated population pedigrees of two different species with contrasting demographic strategies (wild boar and red deer), applied four different methods and compared the accuracy and precision of their estimates. We also performed a sensitivity analysis, simulating population pedigrees with varying fecundity characteristics and various levels of harvesting to identify optimal conditions of applicability of each method. We showed that all these methods reached the required levels of accuracy and precision to be effective in wildlife management under simulated circumstances (i.e., for species within a given range of fecundity and for a given range of sampling intensity), while being robust to fecundity variation. Despite the potential usefulness of the methods for terrestrial game species, care is needed as several biases linked to hunting practices still need to be investigated (e.g., when hunting bags are biased toward a particular group of individuals).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Larroque
- Wildlife Sciences, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Niko Balkenhol
- Wildlife Sciences, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
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Shapiro HG, D'Angelo G, Ruder MG, Pienaar EF. Engaging stakeholders in wildlife disease management: Hunters' willingness to adopt and support biosecurity actions to prevent the spread of rabbit hemorrhagic disease. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.12858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hannah G. Shapiro
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
| | - Gino D'Angelo
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
| | - Mark G. Ruder
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
| | - Elizabeth F. Pienaar
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, Mammal Research Institute University of Pretoria Pretoria South Africa
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5
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Mäntyniemi S, Helle I, Kojola I. Assessment of the residential Finnish wolf population combines DNA captures, citizen observations and mortality data using a Bayesian state-space model. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-022-01615-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAssessment of the Finnish wolf population relies on multiple sources of information. This paper describes how Bayesian inference is used to pool the information contained in different data sets (point observations, non-invasive genetics, known mortalities) for the estimation of the number of territories occupied by family packs and pairs. The output of the assessment model is a joint probability distribution, which describes current knowledge about the number of wolves within each territory. The joint distribution can be used to derive probability distributions for the total number of wolves in all territories and for the pack status within each territory. Most of the data set comprises of both voluntary-provided point observations and DNA samples provided by volunteers and research personnel. The new method reduces the role of expert judgement in the assessment process, providing increased transparency and repeatability.
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Kalén C, Andrén H, Månsson J, Sand H. Using citizen data in a population model to estimate population size of moose (Alces alces). Ecol Modell 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2022.110066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Loosen A, Devineau O, Zimmermann B, Marie Mathisen K. The importance of evaluating standard monitoring methods: Observer bias and detection probabilities for moose pellet group surveys. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0268710. [PMID: 35895704 PMCID: PMC9328498 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0268710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Counting is not always a simple exercise. Specimens can be misidentified or not detected when they are present, giving rise to unidentified sources of error. Deer pellet group counts are a common method to monitor abundance, density, and population trend. Yet, detection errors and observer bias could introduce error into sometimes very large (spatially, temporally) datasets. For example, in Scandinavia, moose (Alces alces) pellet group counts are conducted by volunteer hunters and students, but it is unknown how much uncertainty observer error introduces into these datasets. Our objectives were to 1) estimate the detection probability of moose pellet groups; 2) identify the primary variables leading to detection errors including prior observer experience; and 3) compare density estimates using single and double observer counts. We selected a subset of single observer plots from a long-term monitoring project to be conducted as dependent double observer surveys, where primary and secondary observers worked simultaneously in the field. We did this to quantify detection errors for moose pellet groups, which were previously unknown in Scandinavia, and to identify covariates which introduced variation into our estimates. Our study area was in the boreal forests of southern Norway where we had a nested grid of 100-m2 plots that we surveyed each spring. Our observers were primarily inexperienced. We found that when pellet groups were detected by the primary observer, the secondary observer saw additional pellet groups 42% of the time. We found search time was the primary covariate influencing detection. We also found density estimates from double observer counts were 1.4 times higher than single observer counts, for the same plots. This density underestimation from single observer surveys could have consequences to managers, who sometimes use pellet counts to set harvest quotas. We recommend specific steps to improve future moose pellet counts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Loosen
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management- Evenstad, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Elverum, Norway
| | - Olivier Devineau
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management- Evenstad, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Elverum, Norway
| | - Barbara Zimmermann
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management- Evenstad, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Elverum, Norway
| | - Karen Marie Mathisen
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management- Evenstad, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Elverum, Norway
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8
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Roadkills as a Method to Monitor Raccoon Dog Populations. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11113147. [PMID: 34827879 PMCID: PMC8614573 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) is one of the most frequently killed species on Lithuanian roads. As an invasive species, up-to-date knowledge of population size, trends and spatial distribution is critically important both for species assessment and for the planning of control measures. In Lithuania, however, raccoon dog surveys have not been carried out since 1997. We investigated, therefore, whether roadkill counts on predefined routes could be used as a proxy for a survey. Our dataset includes survey numbers for the period 1956-1997, hunting bag sizes for 1965-2020 (including the spatial distribution of the hunting bag in 2018-2020) and roadkill data relating to 1551 individuals between 2002-2020. At the most local scale, that of the hunting areas of hunting clubs, correlations between the numbers of hunted and roadkilled individuals were negative and insignificant or absent. At the country scale, however, we found significant correlation both between the numbers surveyed and hunted in 1965-1997 (r = 0.88), and between those hunted and the number of roadkills in 2002-2020 (r = 0.56-0.69). Therefore, we consider that roadkill counts on predefined and stable routes may be used as a proxy for a survey at the country scale. Practical implementation of the method is proposed.
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Cretois B, Simmonds EG, Linnell JDC, van Moorter B, Rolandsen CM, Solberg EJ, Strand O, Gundersen V, Roer O, Rød JK. Identifying and correcting spatial bias in opportunistic citizen science data for wild ungulates in Norway. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:15191-15204. [PMID: 34765170 PMCID: PMC8571602 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Many publications make use of opportunistic data, such as citizen science observation data, to infer large-scale properties of species' distributions. However, the few publications that use opportunistic citizen science data to study animal ecology at a habitat level do so without accounting for spatial biases in opportunistic records or using methods that are difficult to generalize. In this study, we explore the biases that exist in opportunistic observations and suggest an approach to correct for them. We first examined the extent of the biases in opportunistic citizen science observations of three wild ungulate species in Norway by comparing them to data from GPS telemetry. We then quantified the extent of the biases by specifying a model of the biases. From the bias model, we sampled available locations within the species' home range. Along with opportunistic observations, we used the corrected availability locations to estimate a resource selection function (RSF). We tested this method with simulations and empirical datasets for the three species. We compared the results of our correction method to RSFs obtained using opportunistic observations without correction and to RSFs using GPS-telemetry data. Finally, we compared habitat suitability maps obtained using each of these models. Opportunistic observations are more affected by human access and visibility than locations derived from GPS telemetry. This has consequences for drawing inferences about species' ecology. Models naïvely using opportunistic observations in habitat-use studies can result in spurious inferences. However, sampling availability locations based on the spatial biases in opportunistic data improves the estimation of the species' RSFs and predicted habitat suitability maps in some cases. This study highlights the challenges and opportunities of using opportunistic observations in habitat-use studies. While our method is not foolproof it is a first step toward unlocking the potential of opportunistic citizen science data for habitat-use studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Cretois
- Department of GeographyNorwegian University of Science and TechnologyTrondheimNorway
- Norwegian Institute for Nature ResearchTrondheimNorway
| | - Emily G. Simmonds
- Department of Mathematical SciencesNorwegian University of Science and TechnologyTrondheimNorway
| | - John D. C. Linnell
- Norwegian Institute for Nature ResearchTrondheimNorway
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife ManagementInland Norway University of Applied SciencesKoppandNorway
| | | | | | | | - Olav Strand
- Norwegian Institute for Nature ResearchTrondheimNorway
| | | | - Ole Roer
- Faun Naturforvaltning ASFyresdalNorway
| | - Jan Ketil Rød
- Department of GeographyNorwegian University of Science and TechnologyTrondheimNorway
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Mandeville CP, Koch W, Nilsen EB, Finstad AG. Open Data Practices among Users of Primary Biodiversity Data. Bioscience 2021; 71:1128-1147. [PMID: 34733117 PMCID: PMC8560312 DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biab072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Presence-only biodiversity data are increasingly relied on in biodiversity, ecology, and conservation research, driven by growing digital infrastructures that support open data sharing and reuse. Recent reviews of open biodiversity data have clearly documented the value of data sharing, but the extent to which the biodiversity research community has adopted open data practices remains unclear. We address this question by reviewing applications of presence-only primary biodiversity data, drawn from a variety of sources beyond open databases, in the indexed literature. We characterize how frequently researchers access open data relative to data from other sources, how often they share newly generated or collated data, and trends in metadata documentation and data citation. Our results indicate that biodiversity research commonly relies on presence-only data that are not openly available and neglects to make such data available. Improved data sharing and documentation will increase the value, reusability, and reproducibility of biodiversity research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin P Mandeville
- Department of Natural History, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Wouter Koch
- Department of Natural History, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Erlend B Nilsen
- Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, Steinkjer, Norway
| | - Anders G Finstad
- Department of Natural History, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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11
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Ludolphy C, Kierdorf U, Kierdorf H. Lead concentrations in antlers of European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from an agricultural area in Northern Germany over a 119-year period-a historical biomonitoring study. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:56069-56078. [PMID: 34047901 PMCID: PMC8500883 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-14538-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We analyzed the lead content in antlers of 90 adult European roe bucks (Capreolus capreolus) that had been culled between 1901 and 2019 in an agricultural-dominated hunting district in Lower Saxony (Northern Germany). Antler lead values ranged between 0.2 and 10.9 mg/kg dry weight. Median lead concentration was highest after World War II, during a period (1956-1984) of rapidly increasing mass motorization and use of leaded gasoline. Lead levels in antlers decreased markedly after the phase-out of leaded gasoline, but high values were still found in some recently collected antlers. This could indicate persistent lead pollution from former use of lead additives to gasoline, other traffic-related sources, or from agricultural sources (e.g., sewage sludge, fertilizers). This study highlights the suitability of analyzing roe deer antlers for the historical monitoring of changing lead levels in the environment. By collecting antlers and providing them for study, local hunters can significantly contribute to environmental surveillance and the monitoring of environmental pollution by bone-seeking contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catharina Ludolphy
- Department of Biology, University of Hildesheim, Universitätsplatz 1, 31141, Hildesheim, Germany
| | - Uwe Kierdorf
- Department of Biology, University of Hildesheim, Universitätsplatz 1, 31141, Hildesheim, Germany
| | - Horst Kierdorf
- Department of Biology, University of Hildesheim, Universitätsplatz 1, 31141, Hildesheim, Germany.
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12
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Takinami H, Ishiyama N, Takafumi H, Kubo T, Tomita K, Tsujino M, Nakamura F. Young citizen sensors for managing large carnivores: Lessons from 40 years of monitoring a brown bear population. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroto Takinami
- Department of Forest Science Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University Sapporo Hokkaido Japan
| | - Nobuo Ishiyama
- Department of Forest Science Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University Sapporo Hokkaido Japan
| | - Hino Takafumi
- Tomakomai Research Station Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido University Tomakomai Japan
| | - Takahiro Kubo
- Center for Environmental Biology and Ecosystem Studies National Institute for Environmental Studies Ibaraki Japan
| | - Kanji Tomita
- Graduate School of Environmental Science Hokkaido University Sapporo Hokkaido Japan
| | - Muku Tsujino
- Department of Biological Sciences School of Science, Hokkaido University Sapporo Hokkaido Japan
| | - Futoshi Nakamura
- Department of Forest Science Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University Sapporo Hokkaido Japan
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13
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Nicosia G, Rodríguez-Planes LI, Maranta AA, Morel A, Gürtler RE. Combining citizen science and recreational hunters to monitor exotic ungulates and native wildlife in a protected area of northeastern Argentina. Biol Invasions 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-021-02606-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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14
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Danielsen F, Enghoff M, Poulsen MK, Funder M, Jensen PM, Burgess ND. The Concept, Practice, Application, and Results of Locally Based Monitoring of the Environment. Bioscience 2021; 71:484-502. [PMID: 33986632 PMCID: PMC8106999 DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biab021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Locally based monitoring is typically undertaken in areas in which communities have a close attachment to their natural resource base. We present a summary of work to develop a theoretical and practical understanding of locally based monitoring and we outline tests of this approach in research and practice over the past 20 years. Our tests show that locally based monitoring delivers credible data at local scale independent of external experts and can be used to inform local and national decision making within a short timeframe. We believe that monitoring conducted by and anchored in communities will gain in importance where scientist-led monitoring is sparse or too expensive to sustain and for ecosystem attributes in cases in which remote sensing cannot provide credible data. The spread of smartphone technology and online portals will further enhance the importance and usefulness of this discipline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Finn Danielsen
- Nordic Foundation for Development and Ecology, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Martin Enghoff
- Nordic Foundation for Development and Ecology, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Mikkel Funder
- Danish Institute of International Studies, also in Copenhagen
| | | | - Neil D Burgess
- Centre for Macroecology, Evolution, and Climate, University of Copenhagen and with United Nations Environment Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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15
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Abstract
Reliable information about wildlife is absolutely important for making informed management decisions. The issues with the effectiveness of the control and monitoring of both large and small wild animals are relevant to assess and protect the world’s biodiversity. Monitoring becomes part of the methods in wildlife ecology for observation, assessment, and forecasting of the human environment. World practice reveals the potential of the joint application of both proven traditional and modern technologies using specialized equipment to organize environmental control and management processes. Monitoring large terrestrial animals require an individual approach due to their low density and larger habitat. Elk/moose are such animals. This work aims to evaluate the methods for monitoring large wild animals, suitable for controlling the number of elk/moose in the framework of nature conservation activities. Using different models allows determining the population size without affecting the animals and without significant financial costs. Although, the accuracy of each model is determined by its postulates implementation and initial conditions that need statistical data. Depending on the geographical, climatic, and economic conditions in each territory, it is possible to use different tools and equipment (e.g., cameras, GPS sensors, and unmanned aerial vehicles), a flexible variation of which will allow reaching the golden mean between the desires and capabilities of researchers.
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