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Liu K, Huang X, Ding X, Chen N. The high molecular diversity in Noctiluca scintillans is dominated by intra-genomic variations revealed by single cell high-throughput sequencing of 18S rDNA V4. HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 132:102568. [PMID: 38331542 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
The application of high-throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies has revolutionized research on phytoplankton biodiversity by generating an unprecedented amount of molecular data in marine ecosystem surveys. However, high-level of molecular diversity uncovered in HTS-based metabarcoding analyses may lead to overinterpretation of phytoplankton diversity due to excessive intra-genomic variations (IGVs). The aims in this study are to explore the nature of phytoplankton molecular diversity and to test the hypothesis. We carried out single-cell metabarcoding analysis of 18S rDNA V4 sequences obtained in single Noctiluca scintillans cells isolated from various sites in coastal waters of China. Results showed that each single N. scintillans cell harbored a high level of IGVs with about 100 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs). The large numbers of non-dominant ASVs identified in N. scintillans cells, which might correspond to the larger numbers of ASVs annotated as N. scintillans and showed similar temporal dynamics in metabarcoding analyses, could inflate the inter-species diversity or intra-species genetic diversity. In addition, there were large numbers of additional ASVs that were not annotated as N. scintillans. These non-N. scintillans ASVs might represent diverse preys for N. scintillans, consistent with previous reports that N. scintillans may act as chance predator of a broad-spectrum preys. This single-cell study has unambiguously demonstrated that the existence of high levels of IGVs in N. scintillans and most likely many other phytoplankton species, demonstrating that the majority of the molecular diversity revealed in metabarcoding analysis, which were generally interpreted as the sum of inter-species diversity and intra-species diversity, actually included high levels of IGVs and should be interpreted with caution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuiyan Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266200, China; College of Marine Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xianliang Huang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266200, China; College of Marine Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xiangxiang Ding
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266200, China; College of Marine Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Nansheng Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266200, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada.
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Chen J, Zhong Y, Wang L, Qiu D. In situ diets of the bloom-forming dinoflagellate Noctiluca scintillans in Daya Bay. HARMFUL ALGAE 2023; 130:102546. [PMID: 38061822 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2023.102546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
Red Noctiluca scintillans is a common heterotrophic dinoflagellate that forms blooms in temperate, subtropical, and tropical coastal ecosystems. The diet of this species plays an important role in its cell growth, development, and reproduction. Because limited gene diversity data are available regarding prey of this species, its diet in Daya Bay during a boreal winter bloom is reported using an integrated approach involving light microscopy, single cell isolation and plastid 16S rDNA cloning, and 18S rDNA V4 and V9 region amplification using isolated cells and environmental DNA as templates with high-throughput sequencing. While conventional light microscopy reveals the diet of this species to comprise Coscinodiscus sp. and Stephanopyxis turris (diatoms), copepod eggs, and detritus, plastid gene diversity identifies a diet comprising diatoms, cyanobacteria, and bacteria, and 18S rDNA high-throughput sequencing reveals a diet comprising 36 eukaryote families (primarily copepods, as well as diatoms, dinoflagellates, Ochrophyta, Haptophytes, Chordata, Cercozoans, Chlorophyta, Polychaeta, and ciliates). Dietary staples include copepods, diatoms, dinoflagellates, Ochrophyta, and Synechococcus. High copepod abundance in prey may reflect their relatively high abundance in environmental seawater. Thus, N. scintillans is generally omnivorous but prefers dominant phytoplankton taxa, including Rhizosoleniaceae, Leptocylindraceae, and Cymatosiraceae (diatoms), as well as Gonyaulacaceae (dinoflagellates). An integrated multi-disciplinary approach provides a more comprehensive picture of N. scintillans diet in Daya Bay, and an improved understanding of this species' ecological niche and trophic role in marine ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingfu Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yu Zhong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
| | - Lei Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Dajun Qiu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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Xiaodong L, Weijing L, Fan J, Ziqin C, Yang C, Ziyang W, Tan Y, Jing L, Weicheng W, Xinhua C. The dinoflagellate Noctiluca scintillans in China: A review of its distribution and role in harmful algal blooms. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 194:115415. [PMID: 37634317 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
The dinoflagellate Noctiluca scintillans is often reported as a worldwide HAB species and caused severe financial losses to local aquaculture. In this review, we summarized the temporal and geographical distribution of its HABs in China, as well as its position in the plankton structure. Increasing N. scintillans HABs, both frequency and coverage, have broken out in almost all Chinese coastal regions mainly from April to June, with short-term and small coverage blooms as the primary type. The HAB period seems to shift with age and latitude. Recently, increasing abundance and dominance of N. scintillans were also reported in plankton communities in Chinese coastal waters, with multiple environmental factors related. In particular, trophic relationships may play an important role in its dominance and outbreaks of HABs. However, how N. scintillans became a dominant species in China and the mechanisms responsible for its HABs require further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Xiaodong
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, College of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province 350002, China.
| | - Lu Weijing
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, College of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province 350002, China
| | - Jiang Fan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, College of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province 350002, China
| | - Chen Ziqin
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, College of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province 350002, China
| | - Chang Yang
- College of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province 350002, China
| | - Wang Ziyang
- College of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province 350002, China
| | - Yan Tan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong Province 266071, China; Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, Shandong Province 266071, China; Centre for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Li Jing
- Fujian Key Laboratory on Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Marine Biodiversity, Fuzhou Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Wang Weicheng
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, College of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province 350002, China
| | - Chen Xinhua
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, College of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province 350002, China; Fuzhou Institute of Oceanography, Fuzhou 350108, China
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Zahir M, Balaji-Prasath B, Su YP, Feng S, Zou J, Yang Y. The dynamics of red Noctiluca scintillans in the coastal aquaculture areas of Southeast China. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2023; 45:4995-5012. [PMID: 37027084 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-023-01528-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Noctiluca scintillans (NS) adds an aesthetic appeal to many coastal areas because of their bioluminescence. An intense bloom of the red NS frequently occurs in the coastal aquaculture region of Pingtan Island in Southeastern China. However, when NS exceeds in abundance, it causes hypoxia which has devastating impacts on the aquaculture. This study was conducted in the Southeastern part of China with an aim to examine the relationship between the profusion of NS and its impacts on marine environment. Samples from four stations on Pingtan Island were collected for 12 months (January to December 2018) and were later analyzed in laboratory against five parameters, namely temperature, salinity, wind speed, dissolved oxygen, and chlorophyll a. Results showed that the NS blooms were particularly active during the months of May and June in the Pingtan Island area. The seawater temperatures during that time were recorded between 20 and 28.8 °C indicating the optimum survival temperature for NS. The NS bloom activity ceased above 28.8 °C. A principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that the richness of NS was positively associated with temperature and salinity, whereas there was a significant reverse correlation between NS accumulation and wind speed. NS is a heterotrophic dinoflagellate and relies on the predation of algae for reproduction; therefore, a significant correlation was observed between NS abundance and chlorophyll a concentration, and an inverse correlation was observed between NS and phytoplankton abundance. Additionally, red NS growth was observed immediately following the diatom bloom, suggesting that phytoplankton, temperature, and salinity are the essential factors in the evolution, progression, and termination of NS growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Zahir
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350007, People's Republic of China
- Centre for Climate Research and Development (CCRD), COMSATS University Islamabad, Park Road, Tarlai Kalan, Islamabad, 45550, Pakistan
| | - Barathan Balaji-Prasath
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350007, People's Republic of China
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Recycling, Fuzhou, 350007, People's Republic of China
- Fujian Province Research Centre for River and Lake Health Assessment, Fuzhou, 350007, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Ping Su
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350007, People's Republic of China.
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Recycling, Fuzhou, 350007, People's Republic of China.
- Fujian Province Research Centre for River and Lake Health Assessment, Fuzhou, 350007, People's Republic of China.
| | - Shenlin Feng
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350007, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiashu Zou
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350007, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuxiang Yang
- Environmental monitoring station of the Pingtan Comprehensive Experimental Area, Pingtan, 350499, People's Republic of China
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Zhao J, Zhang H, Liu J, Ke Z, Xiang C, Zhang L, Li K, Lai Y, Ding X, Tan Y. Role of jellyfish in mesozooplankton community stability in a subtropical bay under the long-term impacts of temperature changes. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 849:157627. [PMID: 35907549 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
To understand zooplankton community changes in the context of climate change and anthropogenic disturbances, we analyzed mesozooplankton samples from four seasons in the subtropical Daya Bay, which is susceptible to perceived disturbances in the South China Sea. The zooplankton community was found to be divided into two clusters, namely the Outer-bay Cluster (OC) comprising Noctiluca scintillans, Temora turbinata, and Paracalanus spp., and the Inner-bay Cluster (IC) which was dominated by Pseudevadne tergestina, Oikopleura rufescens, and Paracalanus spp. The OC was recorded in waters with low Chl a concentrations and high salinity, coinciding with open seawater intrusion. The IC occurred in waters with high Chl a concentrations, low salinity, with terrestrial inputs from the Dan'ao River. The dominant cladoceran species has changed in spring from Penilia avirostris to Pseudevadne tergestina owing to suitable temperature conditions and the low wind speed in this region. Most of the keystone species recorded during all seasons were found to be copepods based on co-occurrence network analysis. Numbers of keystone jellyfish (cnidaria) species, such as Geryonia proboscidalis, Chelophyes contorta, and Aeginura grimaldi were significantly higher in summer than in other seasons due to a low-temperature seawater intrusion, which can result in the highest stability of community structures and affect coastal food webs and fishery resources. Our results highlight that zooplankton community succession may occur with long-term temperature changes in the subtropical Daya Bay under global climate change conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Zhao
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China
| | - Huangchen Zhang
- Guangdong Center for Marine Development Research, Guangzhou 510220, China
| | - Jiaxing Liu
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
| | - Zhixin Ke
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
| | - Chenhui Xiang
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
| | - Liming Zhang
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Kaizhi Li
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China
| | - Yanjiao Lai
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China
| | - Xiang Ding
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China
| | - Yehui Tan
- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China.
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Homma C, Inokuchi D, Nakamura Y, Uy WH, Ohnishi K, Yamaguchi H, Adachi M. Effectiveness of blocking primers and a peptide nucleic acid (PNA) clamp for 18S metabarcoding dietary analysis of herbivorous fish. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0266268. [PMID: 35442965 PMCID: PMC9020718 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0266268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The structure of food webs and carbon flow in aquatic ecosystems can be better understood by studying contributing factors such as the diets of herbivorous fish. Metabarcoding using a high-throughput sequencer has recently been used to clarify prey organisms of various fish except herbivorous fish. Since sequences of predator fish have dominated in sequences obtained by metabarcoding, we investigated a method for suppressing the amplification of fish DNA by using a blocking primer or peptide nucleic acid (PNA) clamp to determine the prey organisms of herbivorous fish. We designed three blocking primers and one PNA clamp that anneal to fish-specific sequences and examined how efficient they were in suppressing DNA amplification in various herbivorous fish. The results showed that the PNA clamp completely suppressed fish DNA amplification, and one of the blocking primers suppressed fish DNA amplification but less efficiently than the PNA clamp. Finally, we conducted metabarcoding using mock community samples as templates to determine whether the blocking primer or the PNA clamp was effective in suppressing fish DNA amplification. The results showed that the PNA clamp suppressed 99.3%-99.9% of fish DNA amplification, whereas the blocking primer suppressed 3.3%-32.9%. Therefore, we propose the application of the PNA clamp for clarifying the prey organisms and food preferences of various herbivorous fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiho Homma
- The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan
| | - Daiki Inokuchi
- Faculty of Agriculture and Marine Science, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, Japan
| | - Yohei Nakamura
- Faculty of Agriculture and Marine Science, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, Japan
| | - Wilfredo H. Uy
- Institute of Fisheries Research and Development, Mindanao State University at Naawan, Naawan, Misamis Oriental, Philippines
| | - Kouhei Ohnishi
- The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan
- Faculty of Agriculture and Marine Science, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, Japan
| | - Haruo Yamaguchi
- The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan
- Faculty of Agriculture and Marine Science, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, Japan
| | - Masao Adachi
- The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan
- Faculty of Agriculture and Marine Science, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, Japan
- * E-mail:
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Nishitani G, Yamamoto K, Nakajima M, Shibata Y, Sato-Okoshi W, Yamaguchi M. A novel parasite strain of Amoebophrya sp. infecting the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella (Group I) and its effect on the host bloom in Osaka Bay, Japan. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 110:102123. [PMID: 34887003 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.102123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The endoparasitic dinoflagellates belonging to the genus Amoebophrya can infect a broad range of free-living marine dinoflagellates, including harmful/toxic species. The parasite kills its host; the high prevalence of the parasite has been suggested to be a significant factor for the termination of dinoflagellate blooms in marine systems. The issues involved in culturing host-parasite systems have greatly restricted further research on Amoebophrya biology. Here, we established the culture of a novel strain of Amoebophrya sp. ex Alexandrium catenella (Group I) from Osaka Bay, Japan, and studied its genetic diversity, host specificity, and prevalence in the field. Genetic analysis established that the strain we isolated was a novel culture strain infecting A. catenella. Among the host species tested, the Amoebophrya sp. could infect the genera Alexandrium and Prorocentrum in culture, and the infection was also confirmed in the genus Tripos in a field sample. A maximum prevalence of 73% was recorded during the Alexandrium bloom period in Osaka Bay, after which the host cell density rapidly declined. Our results indicated that the existence of the parasite had a significant effect on the dynamics of A. catenella, especially on the termination of the blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goh Nishitani
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Aoba 468-1, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-0845, Japan.
| | - Keigo Yamamoto
- Marine Fisheries Research Center, Research Institute of Environment, Agriculture and Fisheries, Osaka Prefecture, Misaki, Sennan, Osaka, 599-0311, Japan; Research Institute of Environment, Agriculture and Fisheries, Osaka Prefecture, 442 Shakudo, Habikino, Osaka, 583-0862, Japan
| | - Masaki Nakajima
- Marine Fisheries Research Center, Research Institute of Environment, Agriculture and Fisheries, Osaka Prefecture, Misaki, Sennan, Osaka, 599-0311, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Shibata
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Aoba 468-1, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-0845, Japan
| | - Waka Sato-Okoshi
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Aoba 468-1, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-0845, Japan
| | - Mineo Yamaguchi
- School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
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