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George J, Lu Y, Tsuchishima M, Tsutsumi M. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury: The role of oxidative stress and therapeutic approaches. Redox Biol 2024; 75:103258. [PMID: 38970988 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2024.103258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Ischemia-reperfusion (IR) or reoxygenation injury is the paradoxical exacerbation of cellular impairment following restoration of blood flow after a period of ischemia during surgical procedures or other conditions. Acute interruption of blood supply to the liver and subsequent reperfusion can result in hepatocyte injury, apoptosis, and necrosis. Since the liver requires a continuous supply of oxygen for many biochemical reactions, any obstruction of blood flow can rapidly lead to hepatic hypoxia, which could quickly progress to absolute anoxia. Reoxygenation results in the increased generation of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress, which lead to the enhanced production of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and other signaling molecules. Consequent acute inflammatory cascades lead to significant impairment of hepatocytes and nonparenchymal cells. Furthermore, the expression of several vascular growth factors results in the heterogeneous closure of numerous hepatic sinusoids, which leads to reduced oxygen supply in certain areas of the liver even after reperfusion. Therefore, it is vital to identify appropriate therapeutic modalities to mitigate hepatic IR injury and subsequent tissue damage. This review covers all the major aspects of cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury, with special emphasis on oxidative stress, associated inflammation and complications, and prospective therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph George
- Department of Cancer Biology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA; Department of Hepatology, Kanazawa Medical University, Uchinada, Ishikawa, 920-0293, Japan; Center for Regenerative Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University Hospital, Uchinada, Ishikawa, 920-0293, Japan.
| | - Yongke Lu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV, 25755, USA
| | - Mutsumi Tsuchishima
- Department of Hepatology, Kanazawa Medical University, Uchinada, Ishikawa, 920-0293, Japan
| | - Mikihiro Tsutsumi
- Department of Hepatology, Kanazawa Medical University, Uchinada, Ishikawa, 920-0293, Japan; Center for Regenerative Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University Hospital, Uchinada, Ishikawa, 920-0293, Japan
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Daiber A, Hahad O, Andreadou I, Steven S, Daub S, Münzel T. Redox-related biomarkers in human cardiovascular disease - classical footprints and beyond. Redox Biol 2021; 42:101875. [PMID: 33541847 PMCID: PMC8113038 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2021.101875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Global epidemiological studies show that chronic non-communicable diseases such as atherosclerosis and metabolic disorders represent the leading cause of premature mortality and morbidity. Cardiovascular disease such as ischemic heart disease is a major contributor to the global burden of disease and the socioeconomic health costs. Clinical and epidemiological data show an association of typical oxidative stress markers such as lipid peroxidation products, 3-nitrotyrosine or oxidized DNA/RNA bases with all major cardiovascular diseases. This supports the concept that the formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species by various sources (NADPH oxidases, xanthine oxidase and mitochondrial respiratory chain) represents a hallmark of the leading cardiovascular comorbidities such as hyperlipidemia, hypertension and diabetes. These reactive oxygen and nitrogen species can lead to oxidative damage but also adverse redox signaling at the level of kinases, calcium handling, inflammation, epigenetic control, circadian clock and proteasomal system. The in vivo footprints of these adverse processes (redox biomarkers) are discussed in the present review with focus on their clinical relevance, whereas the details of their mechanisms of formation and technical aspects of their detection are only briefly mentioned. The major categories of redox biomarkers are summarized and explained on the basis of suitable examples. Also the potential prognostic value of redox biomarkers is critically discussed to understand what kind of information they can provide but also what they cannot achieve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Daiber
- Department of Cardiology, Molecular Cardiology, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Rhine-Main, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Omar Hahad
- Department of Cardiology, Molecular Cardiology, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Rhine-Main, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - Ioanna Andreadou
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Sebastian Steven
- Department of Cardiology, Molecular Cardiology, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Steffen Daub
- Department of Cardiology, Molecular Cardiology, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Thomas Münzel
- Department of Cardiology, Molecular Cardiology, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Rhine-Main, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany.
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Gianazza E, Brioschi M, Martinez Fernandez A, Casalnuovo F, Altomare A, Aldini G, Banfi C. Lipid Peroxidation in Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Diseases. Antioxid Redox Signal 2021; 34:49-98. [PMID: 32640910 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2019.7955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Significance: Atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ACVDs) continue to be a primary cause of mortality worldwide in adults aged 35-70 years, occurring more often in countries with lower economic development, and they constitute an ever-growing global burden that has a considerable socioeconomic impact on society. The ACVDs encompass diverse pathologies such as coronary artery disease and heart failure (HF), among others. Recent Advances: It is known that oxidative stress plays a relevant role in ACVDs and some of its effects are mediated by lipid oxidation. In particular, lipid peroxidation (LPO) is a process under which oxidants such as reactive oxygen species attack unsaturated lipids, generating a wide array of oxidation products. These molecules can interact with circulating lipoproteins, to diffuse inside the cell and even to cross biological membranes, modifying target nucleophilic sites within biomolecules such as DNA, lipids, and proteins, and resulting in a plethora of biological effects. Critical Issues: This review summarizes the evidence of the effect of LPO in the development and progression of atherosclerosis-based diseases, HF, and other cardiovascular diseases, highlighting the role of protein adduct formation. Moreover, potential therapeutic strategies targeted at lipoxidation in ACVDs are also discussed. Future Directions: The identification of valid biomarkers for the detection of lipoxidation products and adducts may provide insights into the improvement of the cardiovascular risk stratification of patients and the development of therapeutic strategies against the oxidative effects that can then be applied within a clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Gianazza
- Proteomics Unit, Monzino Cardiology Center IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Maura Brioschi
- Proteomics Unit, Monzino Cardiology Center IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Giancarlo Aldini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Cristina Banfi
- Proteomics Unit, Monzino Cardiology Center IRCCS, Milan, Italy
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Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 regulates autophagy via the Akt-mTOR pathway to mitigate renal ischemia-reperfusion injury in hypothermic machine perfusion. Life Sci 2020; 253:117705. [PMID: 32334008 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is harmful to patients following kidney transplantation. Hypothermic machine perfusion (HMP) can be adopted to preserve grafts and reduce consequential injury. We hypothesized that aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) partly mitigates kidney IRI via regulating excessive autophagy in HMP. MATERIALS AND METHODS The rabbits were assigned to 5 groups: Normal, HMP, HMP + Alda-1, HMP + CYA and cold storage (CS). After the rabbit autologous kidney transplantation, renal pathology and function were evaluated by histological analysis, glomerular related proteins (desmin, nephrin), tubular injury factors (NGAL, Ki67), serum creatinine (Cr) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). Oxidative stress molecular Malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD2) expression, as well as inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10) were assessed by immunohistochemistry. The expression of LC3, p62, ALDH2, p-Akt, mTOR, PTEN, p-PTEN, and 4-HNE were measured by immunohistochemistry, RT-PCR, Western blot analysis or ELISA. KEY FINDINGS HMP was more effective than CS for kidney preservation, with p- ALDH2 expressed in greater quantities in HMP. The results of kidney pathology and function in HMP + Alda-1 were the best. The MDA & SOD2 and the Vyacheslav score were improved in HMP + CYA. ALDH2 reduced 4-HNE-induced oxidative stress, inflammatory infiltration, the expression of LC3, p62 and inhibited autophagy accompanied by activation of p-Akt and mTOR via p-PTEN/PTEN. SIGNIFICANCE Akt-mTOR autophagy pathway is a novel target for ALDH2 to reduce renal IRI partly by inhibition of 4-HNE in HMP, then protecting the donated kidney received after cardiac death (DCD).
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Takasugi N, Hiraoka H, Nakahara K, Akiyama S, Fujikawa K, Nomura R, Furuichi M, Uehara T. The Emerging Role of Electrophiles as a Key Regulator for Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Stress. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E1783. [PMID: 30974903 PMCID: PMC6480251 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20071783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2019] [Revised: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The unfolded protein response (UPR) is activated by the accumulation of misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which is called ER stress. ER stress sensors PERK, IRE1, and ATF6 play a central role in the initiation and regulation of the UPR; they inhibit novel protein synthesis and upregulate ER chaperones, such as protein disulfide isomerase, to remove unfolded proteins. However, when recovery from ER stress is difficult, the UPR pathway is activated to eliminate unhealthy cells. This signaling transition is the key event of many human diseases. However, the precise mechanisms are largely unknown. Intriguingly, reactive electrophilic species (RES), which exist in the environment or are produced through cellular metabolism, have been identified as a key player of this transition. In this review, we focused on the function of representative RES: nitric oxide (NO) as a gaseous RES, 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) as a lipid RES, and methylmercury (MeHg) as an environmental organic compound RES, to outline the relationship between ER stress and RES. Modulation by RES might be a target for the development of next-generation therapy for ER stress-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobumasa Takasugi
- Department of Medicinal Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan.
| | - Hideki Hiraoka
- Department of Medicinal Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan.
| | - Kengo Nakahara
- Department of Medicinal Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan.
| | - Shiori Akiyama
- Department of Medicinal Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan.
| | - Kana Fujikawa
- Department of Medicinal Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan.
| | - Ryosuke Nomura
- Department of Medicinal Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan.
| | - Moeka Furuichi
- Department of Medicinal Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan.
| | - Takashi Uehara
- Department of Medicinal Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan.
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Lipoxidation in cardiovascular diseases. Redox Biol 2019; 23:101119. [PMID: 30833142 PMCID: PMC6859589 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2019.101119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipids can go through lipid peroxidation, an endogenous chain reaction that consists in the oxidative degradation of lipids leading to the generation of a wide variety of highly reactive carbonyl species (RCS), such as short-chain carbonyl derivatives and oxidized truncated phospholipids. RCS exert a wide range of biological effects due to their ability to interact and covalently bind to nucleophilic groups on other macromolecules, such as nucleic acids, phospholipids, and proteins, forming reversible and/or irreversible modifications and generating the so-called advanced lipoxidation end-products (ALEs). Lipoxidation plays a relevant role in the onset of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), mainly in the atherosclerosis-based diseases in which oxidized lipids and their adducts have been extensively characterized and associated with several processes responsible for the onset and development of atherosclerosis, such as endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. Herein we will review the current knowledge on the sources of lipids that undergo oxidation in the context of cardiovascular diseases, both from the bloodstream and tissues, and the methods for detection, characterization, and quantitation of their oxidative products and protein adducts. Moreover, lipoxidation and ALEs have been associated with many oxidative-based diseases, including CVD, not only as potential biomarkers but also as therapeutic targets. Indeed, several therapeutic strategies, acting at different levels of the ALEs cascade, have been proposed, essentially blocking ALEs formation, but also their catabolism or the resulting biological responses they induce. However, a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of formation and targets of ALEs could expand the available therapeutic strategies.
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Paradies G, Paradies V, Ruggiero FM, Petrosillo G. Mitochondrial bioenergetics and cardiolipin alterations in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury: implications for pharmacological cardioprotection. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2018; 315:H1341-H1352. [PMID: 30095969 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00028.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction plays a central role in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. Increased reactive oxygen species production, impaired electron transport chain activity, aberrant mitochondrial dynamics, Ca2+ overload, and opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore have been proposed as major contributory factors to mitochondrial dysfunction during myocardial I/R injury. Cardiolipin (CL), a mitochondria-specific phospholipid, plays a pivotal role in multiple mitochondrial bioenergetic processes, including respiration and energy conversion, in mitochondrial morphology and dynamics as well as in several steps of the apoptotic process. Changes in CL levels, species composition, and degree of oxidation may have deleterious consequences for mitochondrial function with important implications in a variety of pathophysiological conditions, including myocardial I/R injury. In this review, we focus on the role played by CL alterations in mitochondrial dysfunction in myocardial I/R injury. Pharmacological strategies to prevent myocardial injury during I/R targeting mitochondrial CL are also examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Paradies
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari , Bari , Italy
| | | | - Francesca Maria Ruggiero
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari , Bari , Italy
| | - Giuseppe Petrosillo
- Institute of Biomembranes, Bioenergetics, and Molecular Biotechnologies, National Research Council , Bari , Italy
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Liu XZ, Sun X, Shen KP, Jin WJ, Fu ZY, Tao HR, Xu ZX. Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 overexpression inhibits neuronal apoptosis after spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury. Neural Regen Res 2017; 12:1166-1171. [PMID: 28852401 PMCID: PMC5558498 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.211198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) is an important factor in inhibiting oxidative stress and has been shown to protect against renal ischemia/reperfusion injury. Therefore, we hypothesized that ALDH2 could reduce spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury. Spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury was induced in rats using the modified Zivin's method of clamping the abdominal aorta. After successful model establishment, the agonist group was administered a daily consumption of 2.5% alcohol. At 7 days post-surgery, the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan score significantly increased in the agonist group compared with the spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury group. ALDH2 expression also significantly increased and the number of apoptotic cells significantly decreased in the agonist group than in the spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury group. Correlation analysis revealed that ALDH2 expression negatively correlated with the percentage of TUNEL-positive cells (r = −0.485, P < 0.01). In summary, increased ALDH2 expression protected the rat spinal cord against ischemia/reperfusion injury by inhibiting apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Zhen Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orthopedic Implants, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin Sun
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orthopedic Implants, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Kang-Ping Shen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orthopedic Implants, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wen-Jie Jin
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orthopedic Implants, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhi-Yi Fu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orthopedic Implants, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hai-Rong Tao
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orthopedic Implants, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhi-Xing Xu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orthopedic Implants, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Schaur RJ, Siems W, Bresgen N, Eckl PM. 4-Hydroxy-nonenal-A Bioactive Lipid Peroxidation Product. Biomolecules 2015; 5:2247-337. [PMID: 26437435 PMCID: PMC4693237 DOI: 10.3390/biom5042247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
This review on recent research advances of the lipid peroxidation product 4-hydroxy-nonenal (HNE) has four major topics: I. the formation of HNE in various organs and tissues, II. the diverse biochemical reactions with Michael adduct formation as the most prominent one, III. the endogenous targets of HNE, primarily peptides and proteins (here the mechanisms of covalent adduct formation are described and the (patho-) physiological consequences discussed), and IV. the metabolism of HNE leading to a great number of degradation products, some of which are excreted in urine and may serve as non-invasive biomarkers of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudolf J Schaur
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 33a, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - Werner Siems
- Institute for Medical Education, KortexMed GmbH, Hindenburgring 12a, 38667 Bad Harzburg, Germany.
| | - Nikolaus Bresgen
- Division of Genetics, Department of Cell Biology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstasse 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Peter M Eckl
- Division of Genetics, Department of Cell Biology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstasse 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria.
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Csala M, Kardon T, Legeza B, Lizák B, Mandl J, Margittai É, Puskás F, Száraz P, Szelényi P, Bánhegyi G. On the role of 4-hydroxynonenal in health and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2015; 1852:826-38. [PMID: 25643868 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Revised: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Polyunsaturated fatty acids are susceptible to peroxidation and they yield various degradation products, including the main α,β-unsaturated hydroxyalkenal, 4-hydroxy-2,3-trans-nonenal (HNE) in oxidative stress. Due to its high reactivity, HNE interacts with various macromolecules of the cell, and this general toxicity clearly contributes to a wide variety of pathological conditions. In addition, growing evidence suggests a more specific function of HNE in electrophilic signaling as a second messenger of oxidative/electrophilic stress. It can induce antioxidant defense mechanisms to restrain its own production and to enhance the cellular protection against oxidative stress. Moreover, HNE-mediated signaling can largely influence the fate of the cell through modulating major cellular processes, such as autophagy, proliferation and apoptosis. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms underlying the signaling and regulatory functions of HNE. The role of HNE in the pathophysiology of cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miklós Csala
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, Semmelweis University Budapest, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Tamás Kardon
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, Semmelweis University Budapest, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Balázs Legeza
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Beáta Lizák
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, Semmelweis University Budapest, Budapest, Hungary
| | - József Mandl
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, Semmelweis University Budapest, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Éva Margittai
- Institute of Human Physiology and Clinical Experimental Research, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ferenc Puskás
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Péter Száraz
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Péter Szelényi
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, Semmelweis University Budapest, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gábor Bánhegyi
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, Semmelweis University Budapest, Budapest, Hungary.
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Yang H, Song Z, Yang GP, Zhang BK, Chen M, Wu T, Guo R. The ALDH2 rs671 polymorphism affects post-stroke epilepsy susceptibility and plasma 4-HNE levels. PLoS One 2014; 9:e109634. [PMID: 25313998 PMCID: PMC4196934 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated the protective effect of mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) in cardiovascular diseases. Increased levels of the potential ALDH2 substrate 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) are involved in myocardial/cerebral ischemia accompanied by a high level of oxidative stress. In this investigation, we first performed a case-control study to explore the potential association of ALDH2 rs671 polymorphism and post-stroke epilepsy (PSE). Then, we performed an in vitro study to determine whether the overexpression of ALDH2 could decrease the level of oxidative stress and the apoptosis ratio induced by 4-HNE. There was a significant difference in the distribution of the allele and genotype frequencies of the rs671 polymorphism between PSE patients and ischemic stroke (IS) patients. Individuals with the rs671 A allele showed significantly higher levels of plasma 4-HNE. The overexpression of ALDH2 partially blocked the increased levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and apoptosis ratio induced by 4-HNE and also partially restored the ALDH2 activity in PC12 cells; these effects were reversed in the presence of εV1-2. Our results suggest that the ALDH2 rs671 polymorphism is associated with PSE susceptibility and affects the 4-HNE levels. Targeting ALDH2 might be a useful strategy for the treatment or prevention of PSE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Yang
- Department of Neurology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Zhi Song
- Department of Neurology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Guo-Ping Yang
- Department of Central Laboratory, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Bi-Kui Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Min Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Tian Wu
- Department of Pharmacy, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Ren Guo
- Department of Pharmacy, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- * E-mail:
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Mali VR, Palaniyandi SS. Regulation and therapeutic strategies of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal metabolism in heart disease. Free Radic Res 2013; 48:251-63. [PMID: 24237196 DOI: 10.3109/10715762.2013.864761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE), a reactive aldehyde, is generated from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in biological membranes. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated during oxidative stress react with PUFAs to form aldehydes like 4-HNE, which inactivates proteins and DNA by forming hybrid covalent chemical addition compounds called adducts. The ensuing chain reaction results in cellular dysfunction and tissue damage. It includes a wide spectrum of events ranging from electron transport chain dysfunction to apoptosis. In addition, 4-HNE directly depresses contractile function, enhances ROS formation, modulates cell signaling pathways, and can contribute to many cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis, myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, heart failure, and cardiomyopathy. Therefore, targeting 4-HNE could help reverse these pathologies. This review will focus on 4-HNE generation, the role of 4-HNE in cardiovascular diseases, cellular targets (especially mitochondria), processes and mechanisms for 4-HNE-induced toxicity, regulation of 4-HNE metabolism, and finally strategies for developing potential therapies for cardiovascular disease by attenuating 4-HNEinduced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- V R Mali
- Division of Hypertension and Vascular Research, Department of Internal Medicine, Henry Ford Health System , Detroit, MI , USA
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13
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Franz M, Hilger I, Grün K, Kossatz S, Richter P, Petersen I, Jung C, Gummert J, Figulla HR, Kosmehl H, Neri D, Berndt A, Renner A. Selective imaging of chronic cardiac rejection using a human antibody specific to the alternatively spliced EDA domain of fibronectin. J Heart Lung Transplant 2013; 32:641-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.healun.2013.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2013] [Revised: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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He L, Liu B, Dai Z, Zhang HF, Zhang YS, Luo XJ, Ma QL, Peng J. Alpha lipoic acid protects heart against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury through a mechanism involving aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 activation. Eur J Pharmacol 2012; 678:32-8. [PMID: 22266491 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.12.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2011] [Revised: 12/22/2011] [Accepted: 12/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies demonstrate that alpha lipoic acid can prevent nitroglycerin tolerance by restoring aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) activity and ALDH2-mediated detoxification of aldehydes is thought as an endogenous mechanism against ischemia-reperfusion injury. This study was performed to explore whether the cardioprotective effect of alpha lipoic acid was related to activation of ALDH2 and the underlying mechanisms. In a Langendorff model of ischemia-reperfusion in rats, cardiac function, activities of creatine kinase (CK) and ALDH2, contents of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were measured. In a cell model of hypoxia-reoxygenation, the apoptosis, ALDH activity, reactive oxygen species level, 4-HNE and MDA contents were examined. In the isolated hearts, ischemia-reperfusion treatment led to cardiac dysfunction accompanied by an increase in 4-HNE and MDA contents. Pretreatment with lipoic acid significantly up-regulated myocardial ALDH2 activity concomitantly with an improvement of cardiac dysfunction and a decrease in 4-HNE and MDA contents, these effects were blocked by the inhibitor of ALDH2. Similarly, in the cultured cardiomyocytes, hypoxia-reoxygenation treatment induced apoptosis accompanied by an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species, 4-HNE and MDA. Administration of lipoic acid significantly up-regulated cellular ALDH2 activity concomitantly with a reduction in apoptosis, production of reactive oxygen species, 4-HNE and MDA, these effects were reversed in the presence of ALDH2 or PKCε inhibitors. Our results suggest that the cardioprotective effects of lipoic acid on ischemia-reperfusion injury are through a mechanism involving ALDH2 activation. The regulatory effect of lipoic acid on ALDH2 activity is dependent on PKCε signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan He
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
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Usatyuk PV, Natarajan V. Hydroxyalkenals and oxidized phospholipids modulation of endothelial cytoskeleton, focal adhesion and adherens junction proteins in regulating endothelial barrier function. Microvasc Res 2012; 83:45-55. [PMID: 21570987 PMCID: PMC3196796 DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2011.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2011] [Revised: 04/27/2011] [Accepted: 04/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Lipid peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids generates bioactive aldehydes, which exhibit pro- and anti-inflammatory effects in cells and tissues. Accumulating evidence indicates that 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), a major aldehyde derived from lipid peroxidation of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids trigger signals that modulates focal adhesion and adherens junction proteins thereby inducing endothelial barrier dysfunction. Similarly, oxidized phospholipids (Ox-PLs) generated by lipid peroxidation of phospholipids with polyunsaturated fatty acids have been implicated in atherogenesis, inflammation and gene expression. Interestingly, physiological concentration of Ox-PLs is anti-inflammatory and protect against endotoxin- and ventilator-associated acute lung injury. Thus, excess generation of bioactive hydroxyalkenals and Ox-PLs during oxidative stress contributes to pathophysiology of various diseases by modulating signaling pathways that regulate pro- and anti-inflammatory responses and barrier regulation. This review summarizes the role of 4-HNE and Ox-PLs affecting cell signaling pathways and endothelial barrier dysfunction through modulation of the activities of proteins/enzymes by Michael adducts formation, enhancing the level of protein tyrosine phosphorylation of the target proteins, and by reorganization of cytoskeletal, focal adhesion, and adherens junction proteins. A better understanding of molecular mechanisms of hydroxyalkenals- and Ox-PLs-mediated pro-and anti-inflammatory responses and barrier function may lead to development of novel therapies to ameliorate oxidative stress related cardio-pulmonary disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter V. Usatyuk
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
- Institute for Personalized Respiratory Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Viswanathan Natarajan
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
- Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
- Institute for Personalized Respiratory Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
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Raedschelders K, Ansley DM, Chen DDY. The cellular and molecular origin of reactive oxygen species generation during myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. Pharmacol Ther 2011; 133:230-55. [PMID: 22138603 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2011.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2011] [Accepted: 11/04/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury is an important cause of impaired heart function in the early postoperative period subsequent to cardiac surgery. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation increases during both ischemia and reperfusion and it plays a central role in the pathophysiology of intraoperative myocardial injury. Unfortunately, the cellular source of these ROS during ischemia and reperfusion is often poorly defined. Similarly, individual ROS members tend to be grouped together as free radicals with a uniform reactivity towards biomolecules and with deleterious effects collectively ascribed under the vague umbrella of oxidative stress. This review aims to clarify the identity, origin, and progression of ROS during myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. Additionally, this review aims to describe the biochemical reactions and cellular processes that are initiated by specific ROS that work in concert to ultimately yield the clinical manifestations of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion. Lastly, this review provides an overview of several key cardioprotective strategies that target myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury from the perspective of ROS generation. This overview is illustrated with example clinical studies that have attempted to translate these strategies to reduce the severity of ischemia-reperfusion injury during coronary artery bypass grafting surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koen Raedschelders
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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Ma H, Guo R, Yu L, Zhang Y, Ren J. Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) rescues myocardial ischaemia/reperfusion injury: role of autophagy paradox and toxic aldehyde. Eur Heart J 2010; 32:1025-38. [PMID: 20705694 DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehq253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The present study was designed to examine the mechanism involved in mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2)-induced cardioprotection against ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury with a focus on autophagy. METHODS Wild-type (WT), ALDH2 overexpression, and knockout (KO) mice (n = 4-6 for each index measured) were subjected to I/R, and myocardial function was assessed using echocardiographic, Langendroff, and edge-detection systems. Western blotting was used to evaluate AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK), Akt, autophagy, and the AMPK/Akt upstream signalling LKB1 and PTEN. RESULTS ALDH2 overexpression and KO significantly attenuated and accentuated, respectively, infarct size, factional shortening, and recovery of post-ischaemic left ventricular function following I/R as well as hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced cardiomyocyte contractile dysfunction. Autophagy was induced during ischaemia and remained elevated during reperfusion. ALDH2 significantly promoted autophagy during ischaemia, which was accompanied by AMPK activation and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibition. On the contrary, ALDH2 overtly inhibited autophagy during reperfusion accompanied by the activation of Akt and mTOR. Inhibition and induction of autophagy mitigated ALDH2-induced protection against cell death in hypoxia and reoxygenation, respectively. In addition, levels of the endogenous toxic aldehyde 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) were elevated by ischaemia and reperfusion, which was abrogated by ALDH2. Furthermore, ALDH2 ablated 4-HNE-induced cardiomyocyte dysfunction and protein damage, whereas 4-HNE directly decreased pan and phosphorylated LKB1 and PTEN expression. CONCLUSION Our data suggest a myocardial protective effect of ALDH2 against I/R injury possibly through detoxification of toxic aldehyde and a differential regulation of autophagy through AMPK- and Akt-mTOR signalling during ischaemia and reperfusion, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Ma
- Department of Physiology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
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Aldose reductase decreases endoplasmic reticulum stress in ischemic hearts. Chem Biol Interact 2008; 178:242-9. [PMID: 19041636 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2008.10.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2008] [Revised: 10/16/2008] [Accepted: 10/17/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Aldose reductase (AR) is a multi-functional AKR (AKR1B1) that catalyzes the reduction of a wide range of endogenous and xenobiotic aldehydes and their glutathione conjugates with high efficiency. Previous studies from our laboratory show that AR protects against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, however, the mechanisms by which it confers cardioprotection remain unknown. Because AR metabolizes aldehydes generated from lipid peroxidation, we tested the hypothesis that it protects against ischemic injury by preventing ER stress induced by excessive accumulation of aldehyde-modified proteins in the ischemic heart. In cell culture experiments, exposure to model lipid peroxidation aldehydes-4-hydroxy-trans-2-nonenal (HNE), 1-palmitoyl-2-oxovaleroyl phosphatidylcholine (POVPC) or acrolein led to an increase in the phosphorylation of ER stress markers PERK and eIF2-alpha and an increase in ATF3. The reduced metabolite of POVPC 1-palmitoyl-2-hydroxyvaleroyl phosphatidylcholine (PHVPC) was unable to stimulate JNK phosphorylation. No increase in phospho-eIF2-alpha, ATF3 or phospho-PERK was observed in cells treated with the reduced HNE metabolite 1,4-dihydroxynonenol (DHN). Lysates prepared from isolated perfused mouse hearts subjected to 15 min of global ischemia followed by 30 min of reperfusion ex vivo showed greater phosphorylation of PERK and eIF2-alpha than hearts subjected to aerobic perfusion alone. Ischemia-induced increases in phospho-PERK and phospho-eIF2-alpha were diminished in the hearts of cardiomyocyte-specific transgenic mice overexpressing the AR transgene. These observations support the notion that by removing aldehydic products of lipid peroxidation, AR decreases ischemia-reperfusion injury by diminishing ER stress.
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Poli G, Schaur R, Siems W, Leonarduzzi G. 4-Hydroxynonenal: A membrane lipid oxidation product of medicinal interest. Med Res Rev 2008; 28:569-631. [DOI: 10.1002/med.20117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 509] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Orioli M, Aldini G, Benfatto MC, Facino RM, Carini M. HNE Michael adducts to histidine and histidine-containing peptides as biomarkers of lipid-derived carbonyl stress in urines: LC-MS/MS profiling in Zucker obese rats. Anal Chem 2007; 79:9174-84. [PMID: 17979257 DOI: 10.1021/ac7016184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A new liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) approach, based on the precursor ion scanning technique using a triple-stage quadrupole, has been developed to detect free and protein-bound histidine (His) residues modified by reactive carbonyl species (RCS) generated by lipid peroxidation. This approach has been applied to urines from Zucker obese rats, a nondiabetic animal model characterized by obesity and hyperlipidemia, where RCS formation plays a key role in the development of renal and cardiac dysfunction. The immonium ion of His at m/z 110 was used as a specific product ion of His-containing peptides to generate precursor ion spectra, followed by MS2 acquisitions of each precursor ion of interest for structural characterization. By this approach, three novel adducts, which are excreted in free form only, have been identified, two of them originating from the conjugation of 4-hydroxy-trans-2-nonenal (HNE) to His, followed by reduction/oxidation of the aldehyde: His-1,4-dihydroxynonane (His-DHN), His-4-hydroxynonanoic acid (His-HNA), and carnosine-HNE, this last recognized in previous in vitro studies as a new potential biomarker of carbonyl stress. No free His-HNE was found in urines, which was detected only in protein hydrolysates. The same LC-MS/MS method, working in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode, has been developed, validated, and applied to quantitatively profile in Zucker urines both conventional (1,4-dihydroxynonane mercapturic acid, DHN-MA) and the newly identified adducts, except His-HNA. The analytes were separated on a C12 reversed-phase column by gradient elution from 100% A (water containing 5 mM nonafluoropentanoic acid) to 80% B (acetonitrile) in 24 min at a flow rate of 0.2 mL/min and analyzed for quantification in MRM mode by applying the following precursor-to-product ion transitions m/z 322.2 --> 164.1 + 130.1 (DHN-MA), m/z 314.7 --> 268.2 + 110.1 (His-DHN), m/z 312.2 --> 110.1 + 156.0 (His-HNE), m/z 383.1 --> 266.2 + 110.1 (CAR-HNE), m/z 319.2 --> 301.6 + 156.5 (H-Tyr-His-OH, internal standard). Precision and accuracy data, as well as the lower limits of quantification in urine, were highly satisfactory (from 0.01 nmol/mL for CAR-HNE, His-DHN, His-HNE, to 0.075 nmol/mL for DHN-MA). The method, applied to evaluate for the first time the advanced lipoxidation end products profile in urine from obese Zucker rats, an animal model for the metabolic syndrome, has proved to be suitable and sensitive enough for testing in vivo the carbonyl quenching ability of newly developed RCS sequestering agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marica Orioli
- Istituto di Chimica Farmaceutica e Tossicologica "Pietro Pratesi", Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Milan, Via Mangiagalli 25, I-20133 Milan, Italy
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Suman SP, Faustman C, Stamer SL, Liebler DC. Proteomics of lipid oxidation-induced oxidation of porcine and bovine oxymyoglobins. Proteomics 2007; 7:628-640. [PMID: 17309108 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200600313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Myoglobin (Mb) redox state affects meat color and is destabilized by lipid oxidation products such as 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE). Our objective was to investigate lipid oxidation-induced oxymyoglobin (OxyMb) oxidation in Mb from two major meat-producing livestock species utilizing MS and proteomics tools. Porcine OxyMb was incubated with HNE and analyzed for metmyoglobin (MetMb) formation. MetMb formation was greater in the presence of HNE than controls at pH 7.4 and 37 degrees C (p <0.05). MALDI-TOF MS was used to identify adduct formation; only mono-adducts of HNE (via Michael addition) with porcine Mb were detected. LC-ESI-MS/MS identified three histidine (HIS) residues in porcine Mb that were readily adducted by HNE (HIS 24, 36 and 119), whereas in bovine Mb seven histidine residues (HIS 24, 36, 81, 88, 93, 119 and 152) were adducted. Quantitation of HNE-adducted peptides using isotope-labeled phenyl isocyanate indicated that, initially, HIS 36 was preferentially adducted in porcine Mb whereas HIS 81, 88 and 93 were the predominant sites of early HNE adduction in bovine Mb. Preferential HNE adduction at the proximal histidine (HIS 93) was observed exclusively in bovine OxyMb and may explain why lipid oxidation-induced OxyMb oxidation appears more extensive in beef, than in pork.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surendranath P Suman
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Cameron Faustman
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Sheryl L Stamer
- Proteomics Laboratory, Mass Spectrometry Research Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Daniel C Liebler
- Proteomics Laboratory, Mass Spectrometry Research Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
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