Auditory cortical axons contact commissural cells throughout the guinea pig inferior colliculus

Subcortical coding of predictable and unsupervised sound-context associations

Our environment is made of a myriad of stimuli present in combinations often patterned in predictable ways. For example, there is a strong association between where we are and the sounds we hear. Like many environmental patterns, sound-context associations are learned implicitly, in an unsupervised manner, and are highly informative and predictive of normality. Yet, we know little about where and how unsupervised sound-context associations are coded in the brain. Here we measured plasticity in the auditory midbrain of mice living over days in an enriched task-less environment in which entering a context triggered sound with different degrees of predictability. Plasticity in the auditory midbrain, a hub of auditory input and multimodal feedback, developed over days and reflected learning of contextual information in a manner that depended on the predictability of the sound-context association and not on reinforcement. Plasticity manifested as an increase in response gain and tuning shift that correlated with a general increase in neuronal frequency discrimination. Thus, the auditory midbrain is sensitive to unsupervised predictable sound-context associations, revealing a subcortical engagement in the detection of contextual sounds. By increasing frequency resolution, this detection might facilitate the processing of behaviorally relevant foreground information described to occur in cortical auditory structures.

Inhibitory NPY Neurons Provide a Large and Heterotopic Commissural Projection in the Inferior Colliculus

Located in the midbrain, the inferior colliculus (IC) plays an essential role in many auditory computations, including speech processing and sound localization. The right and left sides of the IC are interconnected by a dense fiber tract, the commissure of the IC (CoIC), that provides each IC with one of its largest sources of input (i.e., the contralateral IC). Despite its prominence, the CoIC remains poorly understood. Previous studies using anterograde and retrograde tract-tracing showed that IC commissural projections are predominately homotopic and tonotopic, targeting mirror-image locations in the same frequency region in the contralateral IC. However, it is unknown whether specific classes of neurons, particularly inhibitory neurons which constitute ~10%–40% of the commissural projection, follow this pattern. We, therefore, examined the commissural projections of Neuropeptide Y (NPY) neurons, the first molecularly identifiable class of GABAergic neurons in the IC. Using retrograde tracing with Retrobeads (RB) in NPY-hrGFP mice of both sexes, we found that NPY neurons comprise ~11% of the commissural projection. Moreover, focal injections of Retrobeads showed that NPY neurons in the central nucleus of the IC exhibit a more divergent and heterotopic commissural projection pattern than non-NPY neurons. Thus, commissural NPY neurons are positioned to provide lateral inhibition to the contralateral IC. Through this circuit, sounds that drive activity in limited regions on one side of the IC likely suppress activity across a broader region in the contralateral IC.

Global Neurotoxicity: Quantitative Analysis of Rat Brain Toxicity Following Exposure to Trimethyltin

The organotin, trimethyltin (TMT), is a highly toxic compound. In this study, silver-stained rat brain sections were qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated for degeneration after systemic treatment with TMT. Degenerated neurons were counted using image analysis methods available in the HALO image analysis software. Specific brain areas including the cortex, inferior and superior colliculus, and thalamus were quantitatively analyzed. Our results indicate extensive and widespread damage to the rat brain after systemic administration of TMT. Qualitative results suggest severe TMT-induced toxicity 3 and 7 days after the administration of TMT. Trimethyltin toxicity was greatest in the hippocampus, olfactory area, cerebellum, pons, mammillary nucleus, inferior and superior colliculus, hypoglossal nucleus, thalamus, and cerebellar Purkinje cells. Quantification showed that the optic layer of the superior colliculus exhibited significantly more degeneration compared to layers above and below. The inferior colliculus showed greater degeneration in the dorsal area relative to the central area. Similarly, in cortical layers, there was greater neurodegeneration in deeper layers compared to superficial layers. Quantification of damage in various thalamic nuclei showed that the greatest degeneration occurred in midline and intralaminar nuclei. These results suggest selective neuronal network vulnerability to TMT-related toxicity in the rat brain.

Microglial peri-somatic abutments classify two novel types of GABAergic neuron in the inferior colliculus

Emerging evidence suggests functional roles for microglia in the healthy, mature nervous system. However, we know little of the cellular density and ramified morphology of microglia in sensory systems, and even less of their inter-relationship with inhibitory neurons. We therefore conducted fluorescent multi-channel immunohistochemistry and confocal microscopy in guinea pigs of both sexes for Iba1, GAD67, GFAP, calbindin, and calretinin. We explored these markers in the inferior colliculi (IC), which contain sub-regions specialized for different aspects of auditory processing. First, we found that while the density of Iba1+ somata is similar throughout the IC parenchyma, Iba1+ microglia in dorsal cortex are significantly more ramified than those in the central nucleus or lateral cortex. Conversely, Iba1+ ramifications in ventral central nucleus, a region with the highest density of GAD67+ (putative GABAergic) neurons in IC, are longer with fewer ramifications. Second, we observed extensive abutments of ramified Iba1+ processes onto GAD67+ somata throughout the whole IC and developed novel measures to quantify these. Cluster analyses revealed two novel sub-types of GAD67+ neuron that differ in the quantity of Iba1+ somatic abutments they receive. Unlike previous classification schemes for GAD67+ neurons in IC, these clusters are not related to GAD67+ soma size. Taken together, these data demonstrate that microglial ramifications vary between IC sub-regions in the healthy, adult IC, possibly related to the ongoing demands of their niche. Furthermore, Iba1+ abutments onto neuronal somata are a novel means by which GAD67+ neurons can be classified.

A novel class of inferior colliculus principal neurons labeled in vasoactive intestinal peptide-Cre mice

Located in the midbrain, the inferior colliculus (IC) is the hub of the central auditory system. Although the IC plays important roles in speech processing, sound localization, and other auditory computations, the organization of the IC microcircuitry remains largely unknown. Using a multifaceted approach in mice, we have identified vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) neurons as a novel class of IC principal neurons. VIP neurons are glutamatergic stellate cells with sustained firing patterns. Their extensive axons project to long-range targets including the auditory thalamus, auditory brainstem, superior colliculus, and periaqueductal gray. Using optogenetic circuit mapping, we found that VIP neurons integrate input from the contralateral IC and the dorsal cochlear nucleus. The dorsal cochlear nucleus also drove feedforward inhibition to VIP neurons, indicating that inhibitory circuits within the IC shape the temporal integration of ascending inputs. Thus, VIP neurons are well-positioned to influence auditory computations in a number of brain regions.

Bilateral projections to the thalamus from individual neurons in the inferior colliculus

The medial geniculate body (MG) receives a large input from the ipsilateral inferior colliculus (IC) and a smaller but substantial input from the contralateral IC. Both crossed and uncrossed inputs comprise a large percentage of glutamatergic cells and a smaller percentage of GABAergic cells. We used double labeling with fluorescent retrograde tracers to identify individual IC cells that project bilaterally to the MGs in adult guinea pigs. We also used immunohistochemistry for glutamic acid decarboxylase to distinguish GABAergic from glutamatergic cells that project bilaterally to the MG. We found cells in the IC that contained both retrograde tracers, indicating that they project bilaterally. Across cases, the bilaterally projecting cells constituted up to 37% of the cells that project to the ipsilateral MG and up to 73% of the cells that project to the contralateral MG. GABAergic cells averaged 20% of the bilaterally-projecting population. We conclude that a population of IC cells sends branching axonal projections to innervate the MG bilaterally. Most of the neurons in this population are glutamatergic, with a minority that are GABAergic. A mixed projection, with glutamatergic cells outnumbering GABAergic cells, originates from each of the major IC subdivisions (central nucleus, dorsal cortex, and lateral cortex). The bilaterally projecting cells are likely to serve functions different from the larger unilateral projections, perhaps synchronizing activity on the two sides of the auditory brain.

Inhibitory Projections from the Inferior Colliculus to the Medial Geniculate body Originate from Four Subtypes of GABAergic Cells

GABAergic cells constitute 20-40% of the cells that project from the inferior colliculus [(IC) a midbrain auditory hub] to the medial geniculate body [(MG) the main auditory nucleus of the thalamus]. Four subtypes of GABAergic IC cells have been identified based on their association with perineuronal nets (PNs) and dense rings of axosomatic terminals expressing vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2 rings). These subtypes differ in their soma size and distribution within the IC. Based on previous work emphasizing large GABAergic cells as the origin of GABAergic IC-MG projections, we hypothesized that GABAergic IC cells surrounded by PNs and VGLUT2 rings, which tend to have larger somas, were more likely to project to the MG than smaller cells lacking these extracellular markers. Here, we injected retrograde tract tracers into the MG of guinea pigs of either sex and analyzed retrogradely labeled GABAergic cells in the ipsilateral IC for soma size and association with PNs and/or VGLUT2 rings. We found a range of GABAergic soma sizes present within the IC-MG pathway, which were reflective of the full range of GABAergic soma sizes present within the IC. Further, we found that all four subtypes of GABAergic IC cells participate in the IC-MG pathway, and that GABAergic cells lacking PNs and VGLUT2 rings were more prevalent within the pathway than would be expected based on their overall prevalence in the IC. These results may provide an anatomical substrate for the multiple roles of inhibition in the IC-MG pathway, which have emerged in electrophysiological studies.

Neuronal Organization in the Inferior Colliculus Revisited with Cell-Type-Dependent Monosynaptic Tracing

The inferior colliculus (IC) is a critical integration center in the auditory pathway. However, because the inputs to the IC have typically been studied by the use of conventional anterograde and retrograde tracers, the neuronal organization and cell-type-specific connections in the IC are poorly understood. Here, we used monosynaptic rabies tracing and in situ hybridization combined with excitatory and inhibitory Cre transgenic mouse lines of both sexes to characterize the brainwide and cell-type-specific inputs to specific neuron types within the lemniscal IC core and nonlemniscal IC shell. We observed that both excitatory and inhibitory neurons of the IC shell predominantly received ascending inputs rather than descending or core inputs. Correlation and clustering analyses revealed two groups of excitatory neurons in the shell: one received inputs from a combination of ascending nuclei, and the other received inputs from a combination of descending nuclei, neuromodulatory nuclei, and the contralateral IC. In contrast, inhibitory neurons in the core received inputs from the same combination of all nuclei. After normalizing the extrinsic inputs, we found that core inhibitory neurons received a higher proportion of inhibitory inputs from the ventral nucleus of the lateral lemniscus than excitatory neurons. Furthermore, the inhibitory neurons preferentially received inhibitory inputs from the contralateral IC shell. Because IC inhibitory neurons innervate the thalamus and contralateral IC, the inhibitory inputs we uncovered here suggest two long-range disinhibitory circuits. In summary, we found: (1) dominant ascending inputs to the shell, (2) two subpopulations of shell excitatory neurons, and (3) two disinhibitory circuits.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Sound undergoes extensive processing in the brainstem. The inferior colliculus (IC) core is classically viewed as the integration center for ascending auditory information, whereas the IC shell integrates descending feedback information. Here, we demonstrate that ascending inputs predominated in the IC shell but appeared to be separated from the descending inputs. The presence of inhibitory projection neurons is a unique feature of the auditory ascending pathways, but the connections of these neurons are poorly understood. Interestingly, we also found that inhibitory neurons in the IC core and shell preferentially received inhibitory inputs from ascending nuclei and contralateral IC, respectively. Therefore, our results suggest a bipartite domain in the IC shell and disinhibitory circuits in the IC.

GABAergic and non-GABAergic projections to the superior colliculus from the auditory brainstem

The superior colliculus (SC) contains an auditory space map that is shaped by projections from several subcortical auditory nuclei. Both GABAergic (inhibitory) and excitatory cells contribute to these inputs, but there are contradictory reports regarding the sources of these inputs. We used retrograde tracing techniques in guinea pigs to identify cells in the auditory brainstem that project to the SC. We combined retrograde tracing with immunohistochemistry for glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) to identify putative GABAergic cells that participate in this pathway. Following a tracer injection in the SC, the nucleus of the brachium of the inferior colliculus (NBIC) contained the most labeled cells, followed by the inferior colliculus (IC). Smaller populations were observed in the sagulum, paralemniscal area, periolivary nuclei and ventrolateral tegmental nucleus. Overall, only 10% of the retrogradely labeled cells were GAD immunopositive. The presumptive inhibitory cells were observed in the NBIC, IC, superior paraolivary nucleus, sagulum and paralemniscal area. We conclude that the guinea pig SC receives input from a diverse set of auditory brainstem nuclei, some of which provide GABAergic input. These diverse origins of input to the SC likely represent a variety of functions. Inputs from the NBIC and IC likely provide spatial information for guiding orienting behaviors. Inputs from subcollicular nuclei are less likely to provide spatial information; rather, they may provide a shorter route for auditory information to reach the SC, and could generate avoidance or escape responses to an external threat.

Commissural Gain Control Enhances the Midbrain Representation of Sound Location

Accurate localization of sound sources is essential for survival behavior in many species. The inferior colliculi (ICs) are the first point in the auditory pathway where cues used to locate sounds, ie, interaural time differences (ITDs), interaural level differences (ILDs), and pinna spectral cues, are all represented in the same location. These cues are first extracted separately on each side of the midline in brainstem nuclei that project to the ICs. Because of this segregation, each IC predominantly represents stimuli in the contralateral hemifield. We tested the hypothesis that commissural connections between the ICs mediate gain control that enhances sound localization acuity. We recorded IC neurons sensitive to either ITDs or ILDs in anesthetized guinea pig, before, during, and following recovery from deactivation of the contralateral IC by cryoloop cooling or microdialysis of procaine. During deactivation, responses were rescaled by divisive gain change and additive shifts, which reduced the dynamic range of ITD and ILD response functions and the ability of neurons to signal changes in sound location. These data suggest that each IC exerts multiplicative gain control and subtractive shifts over the other IC that enhances the neural representation of sound location. Furthermore, this gain control operates in a similar manner on both ITD- and ILD-sensitive neurons, suggesting a shared mechanism operates across localization cues. Our findings reveal a novel dependence of sound localization on commissural processing.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Sound localization, a fundamental process in hearing, is dependent on bilateral computations in the brainstem. How this information is transmitted from the brainstem to the auditory cortex, through several stages of processing, without loss of signal fidelity, is not clear. We show that the ability of neurons in the auditory midbrain to encode azimuthal sound location is dependent on gain control mediated by the commissure of the inferior colliculi. This finding demonstrates that commissural processing between homologous auditory nuclei, on either side of the midline, enhances the precision of sound localization.

Extracellular Molecular Markers and Soma Size of Inhibitory Neurons: Evidence for Four Subtypes of GABAergic Cells in the Inferior Colliculus

Inhibition plays an important role in shaping responses to stimuli throughout the CNS, including in the inferior colliculus (IC), a major hub in both ascending and descending auditory pathways. Subdividing GABAergic cells has furthered the understanding of inhibition in many brain areas, most notably in the cerebral cortex. Here, we seek the same understanding of subcortical inhibitory cell types by combining staining for two types of extracellular markers--perineuronal nets (PNs) and perisomatic rings of terminals expressing vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2)--to subdivide IC GABAergic cells in adult guinea pigs. We found four distinct groups of GABAergic cells in the IC: (1) those with both a PN and a VGLUT2 ring; (2) those with only a PN; (3) those with only a VGLUT2 ring; and (4) those with neither marker. In addition, these four GABAergic subtypes differ in their soma size and distribution among IC subdivisions. Functionally, the presence or absence of VGLUT2 rings indicates differences in inputs, whereas the presence or absence of PNs indicates different potential for plasticity and temporal processing. We conclude that these markers distinguish four GABAergic subtypes that almost certainly serve different roles in the processing of auditory stimuli within the IC.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

GABAergic inhibition plays a critical role throughout the brain. Identification of subclasses of GABAergic cells (up to 15 in the cerebral cortex) has furthered the understanding of GABAergic roles in circuit modulation. Inhibition is also prominent in the inferior colliculus, a subcortical hub in auditory pathways. Here, we use two extracellular markers to identify four distinct groups of GABAergic cells. Perineuronal nets and perisomatic rings of glutamatergic boutons are present in many subcortical areas and often are associated with inhibitory cells, but they have rarely been used to identify inhibitory subtypes. Our results further the understanding of inhibition in the inferior colliculus and suggest that these extracellular molecular markers may provide a key to distinguishing inhibitory subtypes in many subcortical areas.

Corticofugal modulation of peripheral auditory responses

The auditory efferent system originates in the auditory cortex and projects to the medial geniculate body (MGB), inferior colliculus (IC), cochlear nucleus (CN) and superior olivary complex (SOC) reaching the cochlea through olivocochlear (OC) fibers. This unique neuronal network is organized in several afferent-efferent feedback loops including: the (i) colliculo-thalamic-cortico-collicular; (ii) cortico-(collicular)-OC; and (iii) cortico-(collicular)-CN pathways. Recent experiments demonstrate that blocking ongoing auditory-cortex activity with pharmacological and physical methods modulates the amplitude of cochlear potentials. In addition, auditory-cortex microstimulation independently modulates cochlear sensitivity and the strength of the OC reflex. In this mini-review, anatomical and physiological evidence supporting the presence of a functional efferent network from the auditory cortex to the cochlear receptor is presented. Special emphasis is given to the corticofugal effects on initial auditory processing, that is, on CN, auditory nerve and cochlear responses. A working model of three parallel pathways from the auditory cortex to the cochlea and auditory nerve is proposed.

Intercollicular commissural connections refine the representation of sound frequency and level in the auditory midbrain

Connections unifying hemispheric sensory representations of vision and touch occur in cortex, but for hearing, commissural connections earlier in the pathway may be important. The brainstem auditory pathways course bilaterally to the inferior colliculi (ICs). Each IC represents one side of auditory space but they are interconnected by a commissure. By deactivating one IC in guinea pig with cooling or microdialysis of procaine, and recording neural activity to sound in the other, we found that commissural input influences fundamental aspects of auditory processing. The areas of nonV frequency response areas (FRAs) were modulated, but the areas of almost all V-shaped FRAs were not. The supra-threshold sensitivity of rate level functions decreased during deactivation and the ability to signal changes in sound level was decremented. This commissural enhancement suggests the ICs should be viewed as a single entity in which the representation of sound in each is governed by the other.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03764.001

The bilateral arrangement of our eyes and ears enables us to receive information from both sides of our body. This information is conveyed via various sensory pathways that take different routes through the brain to culminate in the cerebral hemispheres. The information is then processed in the brain's outer layer, which is called the cortex.

In the visual system, information from both eyes is kept separate until it reaches the cortex. A similar arrangement exists for touch. However, hearing is unusual among our senses in that sounds undergo much more processing in the brainstem, which is located at the base of the brain, than other types of stimuli. Orton and Rees now show that, in contrast to vision and touch, information about sounds occurring to our left or right is refined by interactions between the two sides of the midbrain.

To test for sideward interactions between the two limbs of the auditory pathway, electrodes were lowered into the brains of anesthetized guinea pigs so that neuronal responses to tones could be recorded. The electrodes were placed in the region of the midbrain that contains two structures called the inferior colliculi (meaning ‘lower hills’ in Latin). Each inferior colliculus predominantly receives inputs from the opposite ear. However, recordings made in one colliculus when the other was deactivated revealed that one colliculus normally alters the response of the other. This shows that there is an important sideward interaction between the two halves of the auditory pathway in the midbrain that refines how fundamental aspects of sound, such as its frequency and intensity, are processed.

This represents a marked departure from our previous understanding of auditory processing in the mammalian brain, and opens up new lines of investigation into the functioning of the auditory system in health and disease.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03764.002

Excitatory and inhibitory projections in parallel pathways from the inferior colliculus to the auditory thalamus

Individual subdivisions of the medial geniculate body (MG) receive a majority of their ascending inputs from 1 or 2 subdivisions of the inferior colliculus (IC). This establishes parallel pathways that provide a model for understanding auditory projections from the IC through the MG and on to auditory cortex. A striking discovery about the tectothalamic circuit was identification of a substantial GABAergic component. Whether GABAergic projections match the parallel pathway organization has not been examined. We asked whether the parallel pathway concept is reflected in guinea pig tectothalamic pathways and to what degree GABAergic cells contribute to each pathway. We deposited retrograde tracers into individual MG subdivisions (ventral, MGv; medial, MGm; dorsal, MGd; suprageniculate, MGsg) to label tectothalamic cells and used immunochemistry to identify GABAergic cells. The MGv receives most of its IC input (~75%) from the IC central nucleus (ICc); MGd and MGsg receive most of their input (~70%) from IC dorsal cortex (ICd); and MGm receives substantial input from both ICc (~40%) and IC lateral cortex (~40%). Each MG subdivision receives additional input (up to 32%) from non-dominant IC subdivisions, suggesting cross-talk between the pathways. The proportion of GABAergic cells in each pathway depended on the MG subdivision. GABAergic cells formed ~20% of IC inputs to MGv or MGm, ~11% of inputs to MGd, and 4% of inputs to MGsg. Thus, non-GABAergic (i.e., glutamatergic) cells are most numerous in each pathway with GABAergic cells contributing to different extents. Despite smaller numbers of GABAergic cells, their distributions across IC subdivisions mimicked the parallel pathways. Projections outside the dominant pathways suggest opportunities for excitatory and inhibitory crosstalk. The results demonstrate parallel tectothalamic pathways in guinea pigs and suggest numerous opportunities for excitatory and inhibitory interactions within and between pathways.

Ultrastructural characterization of GABAergic and excitatory synapses in the inferior colliculus

In the inferior colliculus (IC) cells integrate inhibitory input from the brainstem and excitatory input from both the brainstem and auditory cortex. In order to understand how these inputs are integrated by IC cells identification of their synaptic arrangements is required. We used electron microscopy to characterize GABAergic synapses in the dorsal cortex, central nucleus, and lateral cortex of the IC (ICd, ICc, and IClc) of guinea pigs. Throughout the IC, GABAergic synapses are characterized by pleomorphic vesicles and symmetric junctions. Comparisons of GABAergic synapses with excitatory synapses revealed differences (in some IC subdivisions) between the distributions of these synapse types onto IC cells. For excitatory cells in the IClc and ICd GABAergic synapses are biased toward the somas and large dendrites, whereas the excitatory boutons are biased toward spines and small dendrites. This arrangement could allow for strong inhibitory gating of excitatory inputs. Such differences in synaptic distributions were not observed in the ICc, where the two classes of bouton have similar distributions along the dendrites of excitatory cells. Interactions between excitatory and GABAergic inputs on the dendrites of excitatory ICc cells may be more restricted (i.e., reflecting local dendritic processing) than in the other IC subdivisions. Comparisons across IC subdivisions revealed evidence for two classes of GABAergic boutons, a small GABAergic (SG) class that is present throughout the IC and a large GABAergic (LG) class that is almost completely restricted to the ICc. In the ICc, LG, and SG boutons differ in their targets. SG boutons contact excitatory dendritic shafts most often, but also contact excitatory spines and somas (excitatory and GABAergic). LG synapses make comparatively fewer contacts on excitatory shafts, and make comparatively more contacts on excitatory spines and on somas (excitatory and GABAergic). LG boutons likely have a lemniscal origin.

Descending projections from auditory cortex to excitatory and inhibitory cells in the nucleus of the brachium of the inferior colliculus

Descending projections from the auditory cortex (AC) terminate in subcortical auditory centers from the medial geniculate nucleus (MG) to the cochlear nucleus, allowing the AC to modulate the processing of acoustic information at many levels of the auditory system. The nucleus of the brachium of the inferior colliculus (NBIC) is a large midbrain auditory nucleus that is a target of these descending cortical projections. The NBIC is a source of several auditory projections, including an ascending projection to the MG. This ascending projection appears to originate from both excitatory and inhibitory NBIC cells, but whether the cortical projections contact either of these cell groups is unknown. In this study, we first combined retrograde tracing and immunochemistry for glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD, a marker of GABAergic cells) to identify GABAergic and non-GABAergic NBIC projections to the MG. Our first result is that GAD-immunopositive cells constitute ~17% of the NBIC to MG projection. We then used anterograde labeling and electron microscopy to examine the AC projection to the NBIC. Our second result is that cortical boutons in the NBIC form synapses with round vesicles and asymmetric synapses, consistent with excitatory effects. Finally, we combined fluorescent anterograde labeling of corticofugal axons with immunochemistry and retrograde labeling of NBIC cells that project to the MG. These final results suggest first that AC axons contact both GAD-negative and GAD-positive NBIC cells and, second, that some of cortically-contacted cells project to the MG. Overall, the results imply that corticofugal projections can modulate both excitatory and inhibitory ascending projections from the NBIC to the auditory thalamus.

The auditory corticocollicular system: molecular and circuit-level considerations

We live in a world imbued with a rich mixture of complex sounds. Successful acoustic communication requires the ability to extract meaning from those sounds, even when degraded. One strategy used by the auditory system is to harness high-level contextual cues to modulate the perception of incoming sounds. An ideal substrate for this process is the massive set of top-down projections emanating from virtually every level of the auditory system. In this review, we provide a molecular and circuit-level description of one of the largest of these pathways: the auditory corticocollicular pathway. While its functional role remains to be fully elucidated, activation of this projection system can rapidly and profoundly change the tuning of neurons in the inferior colliculus. Several specific issues are reviewed. First, we describe the complex heterogeneous anatomical organization of the corticocollicular pathway, with particular emphasis on the topography of the pathway. We also review the laminar origin of the corticocollicular projection and discuss known physiological and morphological differences between subsets of corticocollicular cells. Finally, we discuss recent findings about the molecular micro-organization of the inferior colliculus and how it interfaces with corticocollicular termination patterns. Given the assortment of molecular tools now available to the investigator, it is hoped that his review will help guide future research on the role of this pathway in normal hearing.

Distribution of GABAergic cells in the inferior colliculus that project to the thalamus

A GABAergic component has been identified in the projection from the inferior colliculus (IC) to the medial geniculate body (MG) in cats and rats. We sought to determine if this GABAergic pathway exists in guinea pig, a species widely used in auditory research. The guinea pig IC contains GABAergic cells, but their relative abundance in the IC and their relative contributions to tectothalamic projections are unknown. We identified GABAergic cells with immunochemistry for glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) and determined that ~21% of IC neurons are GABAergic. We then combined retrograde tracing with GAD immunohistochemistry to identify the GABAergic tectothalamic projection. Large injections of Fast Blue, red fluorescent beads or FluoroGold were deposited to include all subdivisions of the MG. The results demonstrate a GABAergic pathway from each IC subdivision to the ipsilateral MG. GABAergic cells constitute ~22% of this ipsilateral pathway. In addition, each subdivision of the IC had a GABAergic projection to the contralateral MG. Measured by number of tectothalamic cells, the contralateral projection is about 10% of the size of the ipsilateral projection. GABAergic cells constitute about 20% of the contralateral projection. In summary, the results demonstrate a tectothalamic projection in guinea pigs that originates in part from GABAergic cells that project ipsilaterally or contralaterally to the MG. The results show similarities to both rats and cats, and carry implications for the role of GABAergic tectothalamic projections vis-à-vis the presence (in cats) or near absence (in rats and guinea pigs) of GABAergic interneurons in the MG.

Perineuronal nets and GABAergic cells in the inferior colliculus of guinea pigs

Perineuronal nets (PNs) are aggregates of extracellular matrix that have been associated with neuronal plasticity, critical periods, fast-spiking cells and protection from oxidative stress. Although PNs have been reported in the auditory system in several species, there is disagreement about the distribution of PNs within the inferior colliculus (IC), an important auditory hub in the midbrain. Furthermore, PNs in many brain areas are preferentially associated with GABAergic cells, but whether such an association exists in the IC has not been addressed. We used Wisteria floribunda agglutinin staining and immunohistochemistry in guinea pigs to examine PNs within the IC. PNs are present in all IC subdivisions and are densest in the central portions of the IC. Throughout the IC, PNs are preferentially associated with GABAergic cells. Not all GABAergic cells are surrounded by PNs, so the presence of PNs can be used to subdivide IC GABAergic cells into “netted” and “non-netted” categories. Finally, PNs in the IC, like those in other brain areas, display molecular heterogeneity that suggests a multitude of functions.