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Xia Q, Chen J, Zheng Y, Yang S, Ji F. Feasibility exploration of cortical auditory evoked potentials evoked by spectro-temporal modulation signals. Acta Otolaryngol 2024:1-6. [PMID: 39192827 DOI: 10.1080/00016489.2024.2393214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2024] [Revised: 08/06/2024] [Accepted: 08/08/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND An objective measurement of speech perception would be valuable in hearing-impaired patients who are unable to perform auditory tasks reliably. OBJECTIVES To investigate the feasibility of cortical auditory evoked potentials (CAEPs) evoked by different spectro-temporal modulation (STM) signals and provide reference for the further exploration of acoustic change complex (ACC) in hearing-impaired patients. METHOD 29 normal hearing (NH) adults were recruited and stimulated randomly by STM signals at 6 spectral modulation rates: 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 cycles/octave, at each of 4 temporal modulation rates: 0, 2, 4, 8 Hz, to elicit ACC response. RESULTS The change of spectral modulation rates ≤ 16 cycles/octave at 0 Hz temporal modulation rate had different impacts on latency. 0, 1 cycles/octave, and 4, 8 Hz made a difference to the P2-N1 amplitude easily. 8, 16 cycles/octave were more unstable in rejection rate. No significant difference existed in waveform repetition rate among different STM rates. No significant interaction effect existed in spectral and temporal modulation. CONCLUSIONS STM as a stimulus signal to induce ACC response had its feasibility. 2 cycles/octave at spectral modulation rate and 2 Hz at temporal modulation rate had better stability and waveform repeatability in NH adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingqing Xia
- College of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Jiyue Chen
- Senior Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Hearing and Balance Science, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Otolaryngologic Diseases, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Hearing Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Hearing Impairment Prevention and Treatment, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Zheng
- Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Shiming Yang
- College of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
- Senior Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Hearing and Balance Science, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Otolaryngologic Diseases, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Hearing Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Hearing Impairment Prevention and Treatment, Beijing, China
| | - Fei Ji
- Senior Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Hearing and Balance Science, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Otolaryngologic Diseases, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Hearing Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Hearing Impairment Prevention and Treatment, Beijing, China
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Carroll AM, Riley JR, Borland MS, Danaphongse TT, Hays SA, Kilgard MP, Engineer CT. Bursts of vagus nerve stimulation paired with auditory rehabilitation fail to improve speech sound perception in rats with hearing loss. iScience 2024; 27:109527. [PMID: 38585658 PMCID: PMC10995867 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 09/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Hearing loss can lead to long-lasting effects on the central nervous system, and current therapies, such as auditory training and rehabilitation, show mixed success in improving perception and speech comprehension. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is an adjunctive therapy that can be paired with rehabilitation to facilitate behavioral recovery after neural injury. However, VNS for auditory recovery has not been tested after severe hearing loss or significant damage to peripheral receptors. This study investigated the utility of pairing VNS with passive or active auditory rehabilitation in a rat model of noise-induced hearing loss. Although auditory rehabilitation helped rats improve their frequency discrimination, learn novel speech discrimination tasks, and achieve speech-in-noise performance similar to normal hearing controls, VNS did not enhance recovery of speech sound perception. These results highlight the limitations of VNS as an adjunctive therapy for hearing loss rehabilitation and suggest that optimal benefits from neuromodulation may require restored peripheral signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan M. Carroll
- The University of Texas at Dallas, Texas Biomedical Device Center, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
| | - Jonathan R. Riley
- The University of Texas at Dallas, Texas Biomedical Device Center, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
| | - Michael S. Borland
- The University of Texas at Dallas, Texas Biomedical Device Center, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
| | - Tanya T. Danaphongse
- The University of Texas at Dallas, Texas Biomedical Device Center, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
| | - Seth A. Hays
- The University of Texas at Dallas, Texas Biomedical Device Center, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
| | - Michael P. Kilgard
- The University of Texas at Dallas, Texas Biomedical Device Center, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
| | - Crystal T. Engineer
- The University of Texas at Dallas, Texas Biomedical Device Center, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080-3021, USA
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Biot L, Jacxsens L, Cardon E, Versnel H, Rhebergen KS, Boerboom RA, Gilles A, Van Rompaey V, Lammers MJW. Validation of the acoustic change complex (ACC) prediction model to predict speech perception in noise in adult patients with hearing loss: a study protocol. Diagn Progn Res 2024; 8:1. [PMID: 38263270 PMCID: PMC10807087 DOI: 10.1186/s41512-024-00164-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Speech perception tests are essential to measure the functional use of hearing and to determine the effectiveness of hearing aids and implantable auditory devices. However, these language-based tests require active participation and are influenced by linguistic and neurocognitive skills limiting their use in patients with insufficient language proficiency, cognitive impairment, or in children. We recently developed a non-attentive and objective speech perception prediction model: the Acoustic Change Complex (ACC) prediction model. The ACC prediction model uses electroencephalography to measure alterations in cortical auditory activity caused by frequency changes. The aim is to validate this model in a large-scale external validation study in adult patients with varying degrees of sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) to confirm the high predictive value of the ACC model and to assess its test-retest reliability. METHODS A total of 80 participants, aged 18-65 years, will be enrolled in the study. The categories of severity of hearing loss will be used as a blocking factor to establish an equal distribution of patients with various degrees of sensorineural hearing loss. During the first visit, pure tone audiometry, speech in noise tests, a phoneme discrimination test, and the first ACC measurement will be performed. During the second visit (after 1-4 weeks), the same ACC measurement will be performed to assess the test-retest reliability. The acoustic change stimuli for ACC measurements consist of a reference tone with a base frequency of 1000, 2000, or 4000 Hz with a duration of 3000 ms, gliding to a 300-ms target tone with a frequency that is 12% higher than the base frequency. The primary outcome measures are (1) the level of agreement between the predicted speech reception threshold (SRT) and the behavioral SRT, and (2) the level of agreement between the SRT calculated by the first ACC measurement and the SRT of the second ACC measurement. Level of agreement will be assessed with Bland-Altman plots. DISCUSSION Previous studies by our group have shown the high predictive value of the ACC model. The successful validation of this model as an effective and reliable biomarker of speech perception will directly benefit the general population, as it will increase the accuracy of hearing evaluations and improve access to adequate hearing rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lana Biot
- Resonant labs Antwerp, Department of Translational Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital (UZA), Edegem, Belgium.
| | - Laura Jacxsens
- Resonant labs Antwerp, Department of Translational Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital (UZA), Edegem, Belgium
| | - Emilie Cardon
- Resonant labs Antwerp, Department of Translational Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital (UZA), Edegem, Belgium
| | - Huib Versnel
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Koenraad S Rhebergen
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ralf A Boerboom
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Annick Gilles
- Resonant labs Antwerp, Department of Translational Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital (UZA), Edegem, Belgium
| | - Vincent Van Rompaey
- Resonant labs Antwerp, Department of Translational Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital (UZA), Edegem, Belgium
| | - Marc J W Lammers
- Resonant labs Antwerp, Department of Translational Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital (UZA), Edegem, Belgium
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Mishra SK, Fu QJ, Galvin JJ, Galindo A. Suprathreshold auditory processes in listeners with normal audiograms but extended high-frequency hearing lossa). THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2023; 153:2745. [PMID: 37133816 DOI: 10.1121/10.0019337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Hearing loss in the extended high-frequency (EHF) range (>8 kHz) is widespread among young normal-hearing adults and could have perceptual consequences such as difficulty understanding speech in noise. However, it is unclear how EHF hearing loss might affect basic psychoacoustic processes. The hypothesis that EHF hearing loss is associated with poorer auditory resolution in the standard frequencies was tested. Temporal resolution was characterized by amplitude modulation detection thresholds (AMDTs), and spectral resolution was characterized by frequency change detection thresholds (FCDTs). AMDTs and FCDTs were measured in adults with or without EHF loss but with normal clinical audiograms. AMDTs were measured with 0.5- and 4-kHz carrier frequencies; similarly, FCDTs were measured for 0.5- and 4-kHz base frequencies. AMDTs were significantly higher with the 4 kHz than the 0.5 kHz carrier, but there was no significant effect of EHF loss. There was no significant effect of EHF loss on FCDTs at 0.5 kHz; however, FCDTs were significantly higher at 4 kHz for listeners with than without EHF loss. This suggests that some aspects of auditory resolution in the standard audiometric frequency range may be compromised in listeners with EHF hearing loss despite having a normal audiogram.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srikanta K Mishra
- Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| | - Qian-Jie Fu
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - John J Galvin
- House Institute Foundation, Los Angeles, California 90075, USA
| | - Andrea Galindo
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, Texas 78539, USA
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The Acoustic Change Complex Compared to Hearing Performance in Unilaterally and Bilaterally Deaf Cochlear Implant Users. Ear Hear 2022; 43:1783-1799. [PMID: 35696186 PMCID: PMC9592183 DOI: 10.1097/aud.0000000000001248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Clinical measures evaluating hearing performance in cochlear implant (CI) users depend on attention and linguistic skills, which limits the evaluation of auditory perception in some patients. The acoustic change complex (ACC), a cortical auditory evoked potential to a sound change, might yield useful objective measures to assess hearing performance and could provide insight in cortical auditory processing. The aim of this study is to examine the ACC in response to frequency changes as an objective measure for hearing performance in CI users. DESIGN Thirteen bilaterally deaf and six single-sided deaf subjects were included, all having used a unilateral CI for at least 1 year. Speech perception was tested with a consonant-vowel-consonant test (+10 dB signal-to-noise ratio) and a digits-in-noise test. Frequency discrimination thresholds were measured at two reference frequencies, using a 3-interval, 2-alternative forced-choice, adaptive staircase procedure. The two reference frequencies were selected using each participant's frequency allocation table and were centered in the frequency band of an electrode that included 500 or 2000 Hz, corresponding to the apical electrode or the middle electrode, respectively. The ACC was evoked with pure tones of the same two reference frequencies with varying frequency increases: within the frequency band of the middle or the apical electrode (+0.25 electrode step), and steps to the center frequency of the first (+1), second (+2), and third (+3) adjacent electrodes. RESULTS Reproducible ACCs were recorded in 17 out of 19 subjects. Most successful recordings were obtained with the largest frequency change (+3 electrode step). Larger frequency changes resulted in shorter N1 latencies and larger N1-P2 amplitudes. In both unilaterally and bilaterally deaf subjects, the N1 latency and N1-P2 amplitude of the CI ears correlated to speech perception as well as frequency discrimination, that is, short latencies and large amplitudes were indicative of better speech perception and better frequency discrimination. No significant differences in ACC latencies or amplitudes were found between the CI ears of the unilaterally and bilaterally deaf subjects, but the CI ears of the unilaterally deaf subjects showed substantially longer latencies and smaller amplitudes than their contralateral normal-hearing ears. CONCLUSIONS The ACC latency and amplitude evoked by tone frequency changes correlate well to frequency discrimination and speech perception capabilities of CI users. For patients unable to reliably perform behavioral tasks, the ACC could be of added value in assessing hearing performance.
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Xie D, Luo J, Chao X, Li J, Liu X, Fan Z, Wang H, Xu L. Relationship Between the Ability to Detect Frequency Changes or Temporal Gaps and Speech Perception Performance in Post-lingual Cochlear Implant Users. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:904724. [PMID: 35757528 PMCID: PMC9213807 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.904724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies, using modulation stimuli, on the relative effects of frequency resolution and time resolution on CI users’ speech perception failed to reach a consistent conclusion. In this study, frequency change detection and temporal gap detection were used to investigate the frequency resolution and time resolution of CI users, respectively. Psychophysical and neurophysiological methods were used to simultaneously investigate the effects of frequency and time resolution on speech perception in post-lingual cochlear implant (CI) users. We investigated the effects of psychophysical results [frequency change detection threshold (FCDT), gap detection threshold (GDT)], and acoustic change complex (ACC) responses (evoked threshold, latency, or amplitude of ACC induced by frequency change or temporal gap) on speech perception [recognition rate of monosyllabic words, disyllabic words, sentences in quiet, and sentence recognition threshold (SRT) in noise]. Thirty-one adult post-lingual CI users of Mandarin Chinese were enrolled in the study. The stimuli used to induce ACCs to frequency changes were 800-ms pure tones (fundamental frequency was 1,000 Hz); the frequency change occurred at the midpoint of the tones, with six percentages of frequency changes (0, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50%). Temporal silences with different durations (0, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 ms) were inserted in the middle of the 800-ms white noise to induce ACCs evoked by temporal gaps. The FCDT and GDT were obtained by two 2-alternative forced-choice procedures. The results showed no significant correlation between the CI hearing threshold and speech perception in the study participants. In the multiple regression analysis of the influence of simultaneous psychophysical measures and ACC responses on speech perception, GDT significantly predicted every speech perception index, and the ACC amplitude evoked by the temporal gap significantly predicted the recognition of disyllabic words in quiet and SRT in noise. We conclude that when the ability to detect frequency changes and the temporal gap is considered simultaneously, the ability to detect frequency changes may have no significant effect on speech perception, but the ability to detect temporal gaps could significantly predict speech perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianzhao Xie
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shandong Provincial ENT Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Jianfen Luo
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shandong Provincial ENT Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Xiuhua Chao
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shandong Provincial ENT Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Jinming Li
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shandong Provincial ENT Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Xianqi Liu
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shandong Provincial ENT Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Zhaomin Fan
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shandong Provincial ENT Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Haibo Wang
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shandong Provincial ENT Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Lei Xu
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shandong Provincial ENT Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
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Vonck BM, van Heteren JA, Lammers MJ, de Jel DV, Schaake WA, van Zanten GA, Stokroos RJ, Versnel H. Cortical potentials evoked by tone frequency changes can predict speech perception in noise. Hear Res 2022; 420:108508. [DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2022.108508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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McGuire K, Firestone GM, Zhang N, Zhang F. The Acoustic Change Complex in Response to Frequency Changes and Its Correlation to Cochlear Implant Speech Outcomes. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:757254. [PMID: 34744668 PMCID: PMC8566680 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.757254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the biggest challenges that face cochlear implant (CI) users is the highly variable hearing outcomes of implantation across patients. Since speech perception requires the detection of various dynamic changes in acoustic features (e.g., frequency, intensity, timing) in speech sounds, it is critical to examine the ability to detect the within-stimulus acoustic changes in CI users. The primary objective of this study was to examine the auditory event-related potential (ERP) evoked by the within-stimulus frequency changes (F-changes), one type of the acoustic change complex (ACC), in adult CI users, and its correlation to speech outcomes. Twenty-one adult CI users (29 individual CI ears) were tested with psychoacoustic frequency change detection tasks, speech tests including the Consonant-Nucleus-Consonant (CNC) word recognition, Arizona Biomedical Sentence Recognition in quiet and noise (AzBio-Q and AzBio-N), and the Digit-in-Noise (DIN) tests, and electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings. The stimuli for the psychoacoustic tests and EEG recordings were pure tones at three different base frequencies (0.25, 1, and 4 kHz) that contained a F-change at the midpoint of the tone. Results showed that the frequency change detection threshold (FCDT), ACC N1' latency, and P2' latency did not differ across frequencies (p > 0.05). ACC N1'-P2 amplitude was significantly larger for 0.25 kHz than for other base frequencies (p < 0.05). The mean N1' latency across three base frequencies was negatively correlated with CNC word recognition (r = -0.40, p < 0.05) and CNC phoneme (r = -0.40, p < 0.05), and positively correlated with mean FCDT (r = 0.46, p < 0.05). The P2' latency was positively correlated with DIN (r = 0.47, p < 0.05) and mean FCDT (r = 0.47, p < 0.05). There was no statistically significant correlation between N1'-P2' amplitude and speech outcomes (all ps > 0.05). Results of this study indicated that variability in CI speech outcomes assessed with the CNC, AzBio-Q, and DIN tests can be partially explained (approximately 16-21%) by the variability of cortical sensory encoding of F-changes reflected by the ACC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelli McGuire
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Gabrielle M. Firestone
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Nanhua Zhang
- Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Fawen Zhang
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, United States
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