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Noubactep C, Kenmogne-Tchidjo JF, Vollmer S. Iron-fortified water: a new approach for reducing iron deficiency anemia in resource-constrained settings. Sci Rep 2023; 13:13565. [PMID: 37604937 PMCID: PMC10442336 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-40600-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023] Open
Abstract
A new approach for fortification of drinking water is presented for combating iron deficiency anemia (IDA) worldwide. The idea is to leach Fe from a bed containing granular metallic iron (Fe0), primarily using ascorbic acid (AA). AA forms very stable and bioavailable complexes with ferrous iron (FeII). Calculated amounts of the FeII-AA solution can be added daily to the drinking water of households or day-care centers for children and adults (e.g. hospitals, kindergartens/schools, refugee camps) to cover the Fe needs of the populations. Granular Fe0 (e.g., sponge iron) in filters is regarded as a locally available Fe carrier in low-income settings, and, AA is also considered to be affordable in low-income countries. The primary idea of this concept is to stabilize FeII from the Fe0 filter by using an appropriate AA solution. An experiment showed that up to 12 mg Fe can be daily leached from 1.0 g of a commercial sponge iron using a 2 mM AA solution. Fe fortification of safe drinking water is a practicable, affordable and efficient method for reducing IDA in low-income communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chicgoua Noubactep
- Centre for Modern Indian Studies (CeMIS), Universität Göttingen, Waldweg 26, 37073, Göttingen, Germany.
- Department of Water and Environmental Science and Engineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania.
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Campus of Banekane, Université des Montagnes, P.O. Box 208, Bangangté, Cameroon.
- School of Earth Science and Engineering, Hohai University, Fo Cheng Xi Road 8, Nanjing, 211100, China.
| | | | - Sebastian Vollmer
- Centre for Modern Indian Studies (CeMIS), Universität Göttingen, Waldweg 26, 37073, Göttingen, Germany
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Metallic Iron for Water Remediation: Plenty of Room for Collaboration and Convergence to Advance the Science. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14091492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Scientific collaboration among various geographically scattered research groups on the broad topic of “metallic iron (Fe0) for water remediation” has evolved greatly over the past three decades. This collaboration has involved different kinds of research partners, including researchers from the same organization and domestic researchers from non-academic organizations as well as international partners. The present analysis of recent publications by some leading scientists shows that after a decade of frank collaboration in search of ways to improve the efficiency of Fe0/H2O systems, the research community has divided itself into two schools of thought since about 2007. Since then, progress in knowledge has stagnated. The first school maintains that Fe0 is a reducing agent for some relevant contaminants. The second school argues that Fe0 in-situ generates flocculants (iron hydroxides) for contaminant scavenging and reducing species (e.g., FeII, H2, and Fe3O4), but reductive transformation is not a relevant contaminant removal mechanism. The problem encountered in assessing the validity of the views of both schools arises from the quantitative dominance of the supporters of the first school, who mostly ignore the second school in their presentations. The net result is that the various derivations of the original Fe0 remediation technology may be collectively flawed by the same mistake. While recognizing that the whole research community strives for the success of a very promising but unestablished technology, annual review articles are suggested as an ingredient for successful collaboration.
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Konadu-Amoah B, Ndé-Tchoupé AI, Hu R, Gwenzi W, Noubactep C. Investigating the Fe 0/H 2O systems using the methylene blue method: Validity, applications, and future directions. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 291:132913. [PMID: 34788675 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
An innovative approach to characterize the reactivity of metallic iron (Fe0) for aqueous contaminant removal has been in use for a decade: The methylene blue method (MB method). The approach considers the differential adsorptive affinity of methylene blue (MB) for sand and iron oxides. The MB method characterizes MB discoloration by sand as it is progressively coated by in-situ generated iron corrosion products (FeCPs) to deduce the extent of iron corrosion. The MB method is a semi-quantitative tool that has successfully clarified some contradicting reports on the Fe0/H2O system. Moreover, it has the potential to serve as a powerful tool for routine tests in the Fe0 remediation industry, including quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC). However, MB is widely used as a 'molecular probe' to characterize the Fe0/H2O system, for instance for wastewater treatment. Thus, there is scope to avoid confusion created by the multiple uses of MB in Fe0/H2O systems. The present communication aims at filling this gap by presenting the science of the MB method, and its application and limitations. It is concluded that the MB method is very suitable for Fe0 material screening and optimization of operational designs. However, the MB method only provides semi-quantitative information, but gives no data on the solid-phase characterization of solid Fe0 and its reaction products. In other words, further comprehensive investigations with microscopic and spectroscopic surface and solid-state analyses are needed to complement results from the MB method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Konadu-Amoah
- School of Earth Science and Engineering, Hohai University, Fo Cheng Xi Road 8, Nanjing 211100, China.
| | - Arnaud Igor Ndé-Tchoupé
- School of Earth Science and Engineering, Hohai University, Fo Cheng Xi Road 8, Nanjing 211100, China.
| | - Rui Hu
- School of Earth Science and Engineering, Hohai University, Fo Cheng Xi Road 8, Nanjing 211100, China.
| | - Willis Gwenzi
- Biosystems and Environmental Engineering Research Group, Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe.
| | - Chicgoua Noubactep
- Centre for Modern Indian Studies (CeMIS), Universität Göttingen, Waldweg 26, 37073 Göttingen, Germany; Department of Applied Geology, University of Göttingen, Goldschmidtstraße 3, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany; Department of Water and Environmental Science and Engineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania; Faculty of Science and Technology, Campus of Banekane, Université des Montagnes, P.O. Box 208, Bangangté, Cameroon.
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