Accurate interpretation of the QT interval: a vital task that remains unaccomplished

Can laypeople identify a drug-induced QT interval prolongation? A psychophysical and eye-tracking experiment examining the ability of nonexperts to interpret an ECG

Objective

The study sought to quantify a layperson’s ability to detect drug-induced QT interval prolongation on an electrocardiogram (ECG) and determine whether the presentation of the trace affects such detection.

Materials and Methods

Thirty layperson participants took part in a psychophysical and eye-tracking experiment. Following training, participants completed 21 experimental trials, in which each trial consisted of 2 ECGs (a baseline and a comparison stimulus, both with a heart rate of 60 beats/min). The experiment used a 1 alternative forced-choice paradigm, in which participants indicated whether or not they perceived a difference in the QT interval length between the 2 ECGs. The ECG trace was presented in 3 ways: a single complex with the signals aligned by the R wave, a single complex without alignment, and a 10-second rhythm strip. Performance was analyzed using the psychometric function to estimate the just noticeable difference threshold, along with eye-tracking metrics.

Results

The just noticeable difference 50% and 75% thresholds were 30 and 88 ms, respectively, showing that the majority of laypeople were able to detect a clinically significant QT-prolongation at a low normal heart rate. Eye movement data indicated that people were more likely to appraise the rhythm strip stimulus systematically and accurately.

Conclusions

People can quickly be trained to self-monitor, which may help with more rapid identification of drug-induced long QT syndrome and prevent the development of life-threatening complications. The rhythm strip is a better form of presentation than a single complex, as it is less likely to be misinterpreted due to artifacts in the signal.

Proarrhythmic risk with antipsychotic and antidepressant drugs: implications in the elderly

The quinidine-like effects of some antidepressant drugs (particularly tricyclic antidepressants) and many antipsychotic drugs (particularly the phenothiazines) confound treatment of psychosis and depression in patients with major mental illness. This is especially true among elderly patients with existing risk factors for corrected QT (QTc) interval prolongation. We used PubMed, previously reported review articles and the extensive personal files of the authors to identify cases of subjects aged>or=60 years who developed QTc interval prolongation, polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (PVT)/torsade de pointes (TdP) and/or sudden cardiac death while taking antipsychotic or antidepressant drugs or a combination of these medications. We identified 37 patients who had taken, in total, 46 antipsychotic or antidepressant drugs. Our most striking finding was that almost four-fifths of our cases involved women. When the 14 critically ill subjects receiving haloperidol intravenously were excluded, 91.3% of our subjects were women. Almost three-quarters of our study subjects had cardiovascular disease. Intravenous administration of haloperidol in the critically ill and profoundly agitated elderly warrants particular comment. Of the 14 subjects in this category identified, six were men and eight were women. In 13 cases, the drug dose far exceeded the 2 mg necessary to produce an antipsychotic effect. These clinicians were using an agent to achieve sedation that usually requires very high doses in the critically ill and profoundly agitated elderly to achieve this effect. Inclusion criteria for our literature review required antipsychotic and/or antidepressant drug-induced QTc interval prolongation. Even so, our finding that 31 of our 37 subjects developed PVT is sobering. However, the reader should not conclude that drug-induced QTc interval prolongation is highly predictive of PVT or its TdP subtype. All of our study subjects had at least two risk factors for TdP, with age and sex being the most common. We included the rare case of a patient with congenital long QT syndrome who developed further lengthening of the QTc interval and TdP when prescribed an antidepressant drug well known to produce QTc interval prolongation. We conclude with recommendations for clinicians not expert in the specialty of cardiology to deal with the many questions raised in this review. Specifically, such clinicians treating elderly patients with antipsychotic and antidepressant drugs that may prolong the QTc interval should aggressively obtain a baseline ECG for elderly female patients with additional risk factors such as personal or family history of pre-syncope or syncope, electrolyte disturbances or cardiovascular disease. Elderly male patients are also subject to QTc interval prolongation when such risk factors are present. It is important that the clinicians themselves inspect ECGs. If the QT interval is more than half the RR interval, QTc interval prolongation is likely to be present. In such cases, a cardiology colleague interested in QTc interval issues and TdP should be asked to review the ECG. Finally, nothing in our recommendations replaces meticulous attention to US FDA guidelines in the package insert of each drug.

The corrected QT interval before and after heart transplantation

Heart donor candidates have severe neurologic injuries that have been associated with significant prolongation of the corrected QT (QTc) interval. Screening for an underlying abnormality of cardiac repolarization such as the long-QT syndrome thus becomes difficult. The aims of this study were to establish normal values and determine factors associated with prolongation of pre- and post-transplantation QTc intervals in a large cohort of heart transplantation donors and recipients. The medical records of 179 donors and 112 recipients were reviewed for historical, electrocardiographic, and neuroimaging data. After linear regression analysis, gunshot wounds were associated with the shortest mean pre-transplantation QTc interval of 447 +/- 51 ms (p = 0.016), whereas all other mechanisms of brain injury were associated with markedly prolonged QTc intervals. Overall, the mean QTc interval decreased from 467 +/- 58 to 446 +/- 47 ms (p <0.001), the mean QRS duration increased from 87 +/- 16 to 98 +/- 21 ms (p <0.001), and the mean QT dispersion did not change significantly after transplantation. The only factor associated with a prolonged QTc interval in the post-transplantation period was hypokalemia, with a mean QTc of 468 +/- 37 ms (p = 0.047). In conclusion, the mechanism of donor brain injury is associated with alterations in the pre-transplantation QTc interval, with the shortest intervals related to gunshot wounds. Fewer than 5% of the donor population was found to have QTc interval > or =580 ms. For those afflicted by gunshot wounds, <5% had QTc intervals > or =550 ms. This information can be used in pre-transplantation donor assessment, and post-transplantation management can be tailored to avoid the occurrence of ventricular arrhythmia.

Z-score for benchmarking reader competence in a central ECG laboratory

BACKGROUND

ECGs from thorough QT studies must be read in a central laboratory by trained experts. Standards of expertise are not presently defined. We, therefore, studied the use of Z-scores to define reader competence.

METHODS

Two hundred ECGs were read by 24 experts and the mean and standard deviation (SD) of QT measurements calculated for each ECG. Z-scores ([QT(reader)- mean QT(experts)]/ SD(experts)) for each ECG and mean of absolute Z-scores of all ECGs read by a reader were calculated. The highest mean absolute Z-score of experts was considered the cutoff to define competence. Hundred of these standardized ECGs were used to assess performance of readers from the central laboratory.

RESULTS

All experts had mean absolute Z-scores < or = 1.5. Using this cutoff, one of 28 experienced readers and 7 of 15 trainees had unacceptable Z-scores. After re-training, all achieved Z-scores <1.5. Comparing histograms of actual Z-scores of the 100 ECGs of readers with unacceptable scores with that of the reader with the best Z-score showed two patterns. Readers with histograms having a peak and tails similar to that of the best reader, but with leftward or rightward shift, consistently made shorter or longer QT measurements, respectively. A histogram with a flatter peak and wider tails, suggested that measurements were long in some ECGs and short in others.

CONCLUSION

Mean absolute Z-score is useful to assess competence for measuring the QT interval on ECGs. Analysis of histograms can pinpoint problems in QT measurements.

The QT and Tp-e intervals in left and right chest leads: comparison between patients with systemic and pulmonary hypertension

BACKGROUND

Action potential duration in the right ventricle is normally shorter than that in the left. We tested the hypothesis that there may be intrinsic differences in the QT and Tp-e (an interval from the peak to the end of the T wave) intervals between the left and right chest leads that can be exaggerated by systemic hypertension but attenuated by pulmonary hypertension in humans.

METHODS

Electrocardiograms in the left (V4L-V6L) and right (V4R-V6R) chest leads were obtained in 40 healthy individuals, 29 patients with systemic hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy, and 15 patients with pulmonary hypertension.

RESULTS

In healthy individuals, the corrected QT (QTc) and corrected Tp-e [T(p-e)c] intervals were 421+/-5 and 86+/-3 milliseconds in V4L through V6L, respectively, significantly longer than those recorded from V4R through V6R (383+/-5 and 62+/-4 milliseconds, respectively; P<.01). Left ventricular hypertrophy prolonged the QTc interval in V4L through V6L (456+/-5 milliseconds), exaggerating the difference in the QTc interval between the left and right chest leads (61+/-4 vs 40+/-3 milliseconds in healthy control subjects; P<.01). Left ventricular hypertrophy also resulted in a small but significant increase in the T(p-e)c interval in V4L through V6L (97+/-3 vs 86+/-3 milliseconds in control subjects; P<.05) but exerted no significant effect on the T(p-e)c interval in the right. In contrast, pulmonary hypertension lengthened the QTc interval in the right chest leads, reducing the difference in the QTc interval between the left and right chest leads (3+/-8 vs 40+/-3 milliseconds in control subjects; P<.01).

CONCLUSIONS

There are intrinsic differences in the QT and Tp-e intervals between V4L-V6L and V4R-V6R that are significantly amplified by systemic hypertension but markedly attenuated by pulmonary hypertension.

Mechanisms underlying arrhythmogenesis in long QT syndrome

Long QT syndrome is a disease of delayed ventricular repolarization. It manifests clinically as recurrent syncope and sudden cardiac death caused by an atypical form of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia known as torsades de pointes (TdP). Evidence obtained from the studies using the rabbit left and right ventricular wedge preparations indicates that the development of TdP is relying not only on the genesis of an R-on-T trigger, but also on the formation of a functional reentrant substrate. When ventricular endocardial or subendocardial repolarization is prolonged either because of gene mutations or by drugs that reduce the net repolarization current, cell membrane potential fluctuates during phase 2 of the action potential phase 2 because of reactivation of L-type calcium current, that is, the appearance of phase 2 early afterdepolarization (EAD). In the rabbit left ventricular wedge, QT prolongation and EAD due to pure IKr inhibition are accompanied by a disproportional increase in transmural dispersion of repolarization (TDR). Early afterdepolarization in endocardium or subendocardium is able to produce new action potentials in cells with a relatively short action potential duration (eg, ventricular epicardium) probably via an electrotonic effect when TDR is large enough. This, in turn, results in an R-on-T extrasystole that is capable of initiating TdP. Enhanced TDR is essential not only for the genesis of the first initiating beat of TdP by facilitating the propagation of EAD, but also for the maintenance of TdP by serving as a functional reentrant substrate.