Secreted ferritin: mosquito defense against iron overload?

Iron Homeostasis in Insects

Iron is an essential micronutrient for all types of organisms; however, iron has chemical properties that can be harmful to cells. Because iron is both necessary and potentially damaging, insects have homeostatic processes that control the redox state, quantity, and location of iron in the body. These processes include uptake of iron from the diet, intracellular and extracellular iron transport, and iron storage. Early studies of iron-binding proteins in insects suggested that insects and mammals have surprisingly different mechanisms of iron homeostasis, including different primary mechanisms for exporting iron from cells and for transporting iron from one cell to another, and subsequent studies have continued to support this view. This review summarizes current knowledge about iron homeostasis in insects, compares insect and mammalian iron homeostasis mechanisms, and calls attention to key remaining knowledge gaps.

Predicted iron metabolism genes in hard ticks and their response to iron reduction in Dermacentor andersoni cells

For most organisms, iron is an essential nutrient due to its role in fundamental cellular processes. Insufficient iron causes sub-optimal metabolism with potential effects on viability, while high levels of iron are toxic due to the formation of oxidative radicals, which damage cellular components. Many molecules and processes employed in iron uptake, storage, transport and metabolism are conserved, however significant knowledge gaps remain regarding these processes in ticks due to their unique physiology. In this study, we first identified and sequenced 13 genes likely to be involved in iron metabolism in Dermacentor andersoni cells. We then developed a method to reduce iron levels in D. andersoni cells using the iron chelator 2,2'-bipyridyl and measured the transcriptional response of these genes to iron reduction. The genes include a putative transferrin receptor, divalent metal transporter 1, duodenal cytochrome b, zinc/iron transporters zip7, zip13, zip14, mitoferrin, ferrochelatase, iron regulatory protein 1, ferritin1, ferritin2, transferrin and poly r(C)-binding protein. Overall, the transcriptional response of the target genes to iron reduction was modest. The most marked changes were a decrease in ferritin2, which transports iron through the tick hemolymph, the mitochondrial iron transporter mitoferrin, and the mitochondrial enzyme ferrochelatase. Iron regulatory protein1 was the only gene with an overall increase in transcript in response to reduced iron levels. This work lays the foundation for an improved understanding of iron metabolism in ticks which may provide molecular targets for the development of novel tick control methods and aid in the understanding of tick-pathogen interactions.

Iron and Ferritin Deposition in the Ovarian Tissues of the Yellow Fever Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae)

Dengue, yellow fever, and Zika are viruses transmitted by yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti [Linnaeus (Diptera: Culicidae)], to thousands of people each year. Mosquitoes transmit these viruses while consuming a blood meal that is required for oogenesis. Iron, an essential nutrient from the blood meal, is required for egg development. Mosquitoes receive a high iron load in the meal; although iron can be toxic, these animals have developed mechanisms for dealing with this load. Our previous research has shown iron from the blood meal is absorbed in the gut and transported by ferritin, the main iron transport and storage protein, to the ovaries. We now report the distribution of iron and ferritin in ovarian tissues before blood feeding and 24 and 72 h post-blood meal. Ovarian iron is observed in specific locations. Timing post-blood feeding influences the location and distribution of the ferritin heavy-chain homolog, light-chain homolog 1, and light-chain homolog 2 in ovaries. Understanding iron deposition in ovarian tissues is important to the potential use of interference in iron metabolism as a vector control strategy for reducing mosquito fecundity, decreasing mosquito populations, and thereby reducing transmission rates of vector-borne diseases.

Description of a Second Ferritin Light Chain Homologue From the Yellow Fever Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae)

Ferritin is required for iron storage in vertebrates and for iron transport and storage in invertebrates, specifically insects. Classical ferritins consist of 24 subunits configured as a polyhedron wherein iron is held. The 24 subunits include light and heavy chains, each with specific functions. Several homologues of the light and heavy chains have been sequenced and studied in insects. In addition to iron transport and storage, ferritin has a role in dietary iron absorption, and functions as a protective agent preventing iron overload, decreasing oxidative stress, and reducing infection in these animals. The expression profile and regulation of a second ferritin light chain homologue (LCH2) in Aedes aegypti [Linnaeus (Diptera: Culicidae), yellow fever mosquito] was characterized in cells, animal developmental stages, and tissues post bloodmeal (PBM) by real-time PCR and immunoblot. Two previously studied ferritin subunits from Ae. aegypti, HCH and LCH1, along with LCH2 were immunoprecipitated and analyzed by mass spectrometry. The three Ae. aegypti ferritin subunits, HCH, LCH1, and LCH2, have different expression profiles and regulation with iron exposure, developmental stage, and tissue response PBM. Ae. aegypti expresses multiple and unique ferritin light chain subunits. Ae. aegypti, the vector for Zika, Dengue, and yellow fever, requires iron for oogenesis that is transported and stored in ferritin; this vector expresses a second light chain ferritin subunit homologue unlike any other species in which ferritin has been studied to date.

Larval stress alters dengue virus susceptibility in Aedes aegypti (L.) adult females

In addition to genetic history, environmental conditions during larval stages are critical to the development, success and phenotypic fate of the Aedes aegypti mosquito. In particular, previous studies have shown a strong genotype-by-environment component to adult mosquito body size in response to optimal vs stressed larval conditions. Here, we expand upon those results by investigating the effects of larval-stage crowding and nutritional limitation on the susceptibility of a recent field isolate of Aedes aegypti to dengue virus serotype-2. Interestingly, female mosquitoes from larvae subjected to a stressed regime exhibited significantly reduced susceptibility to disseminated dengue infection 14days post infection compared to those subjected to optimal regimes. Short term survivorship post-infected blood feeding was not significantly different. As with body size, dengue virus susceptibility of a mosquito population is determined by a combination of genetic and environmental factors and is likely maintained by balancing selection. Here, we provide evidence that under different environmental conditions, the innate immune response of field-reared mosquitoes exhibits a large range of phenotypic variability with regard to dengue virus susceptibility. Further, as with body size, our results suggest that mosquitoes reared under optimal laboratory conditions, as employed in all mosquito-pathogen studies to date, may not always be realistic proxies for natural populations.

Iron availability affects West Nile virus infection in its mosquito vector

Background

Mosquitoes are responsible for transmission of viruses, including dengue, West Nile and chikungunya viruses. Female mosquitoes are infected when they blood-feed on vertebrates, a required step for oogenesis. During this process, mosquitoes encounter high iron loads. Since iron is an essential nutrient for most organisms, including pathogens, one of the defense mechanisms for the host includes sequestration of iron away from the invading pathogen. Here, we determine whether iron availability affects viral replication in mosquitoes.

Methods

To elucidate effect of iron availability on mosquito cells during infection, Culex cells were treated with either ferric ammonium citrate (FAC) or the iron chelator, deferoxamine (DFX). Real time RT-PCR was performed using ferritin (heavy chain) and NRAMP as a measure of iron homeostasis in cells. To determine iron requirement for viral replication, Culex cells were knocked down for NRAMP using dsRNA. Finally, the results were validated in Culex mosquito-infection model, by treating infected mosquitoes with DFX to reduce iron levels.

Results

Our results show that infection of Culex cells led to induction in levels of ferritin (heavy chain) and NRAMP mRNAs in time-dependent manner. Results also showed that treatment of cells with FAC, reduced expression of NRAMP (iron transporter) and increase levels of ferritin (heavy chain). Interestingly, increasing iron levels increased viral titers; while reducing intracellular iron levels, either by NRAMP knock-down or using DFX, reduced viral titers. The results from Culex mosquito infection showed that mosquitoes treated with DFX had reduced viral titers compared with untreated controls in midgut as well as carcass 8 days pi. Saliva from mosquitoes treated with DFX also showed reduced viral titers compared with untreated controls, indicating low viral transmission capacity.

Conclusions

Our results indicate that iron is required for viral replication in mosquito cells. Mosquitoes respond to viral infection, by inducing expression of heavy chain ferritin, which sequesters available iron, reducing its availability to virus infected cells. The data indicates that heavy chain ferritin may be part of an immune mechanism of mosquitoes in response to viral infections.

Gut transcriptome analysis on females of Ornithodoros mimon (Acari: Argasidae) and phylogenetic inference of ticks

Abstract Ornithodoros mimon is an argasid tick that parasitizes bats, birds and opossums and is also harmful to humans. Knowledge of the transcripts present in the tick gut helps in understanding the role of vital molecules in the digestion process and parasite-host relationship, while also providing information about the evolution of arthropod hematophagy. Thus, the present study aimed to know and ascertain the main molecules expressed in the gut of argasid after their blood meal, through analysis on the gut transcriptome of engorged females of O. mimon using 454-based RNA sequencing. The gut transcriptome analysis reveals several transcripts associated with hemoglobin digestion, such as serine, cysteine, aspartic proteases and metalloenzymes. The phylogenetic analysis on the peptidases confirmed that most of them are clustered with other tick genes. We recorded the presence a cathepsin O peptidase-coding transcript in ticks. The topology of the phylogenetic inferences, based on transcripts of inferred families of homologues, was similar to that of previous reports based on mitochondrial genome and nuclear rRNA sequences. We deposited 2,213 sequence of O. mimon to the public databases. Our findings may help towards better understanding of important argasid metabolic processes, such as digestion, nutrition and immunity.

Iron mediated toxicity and programmed cell death: A review and a re-examination of existing paradigms

Iron is an essential micronutrient that is problematic for biological systems since it is toxic as it generates free radicals by interconverting between ferrous (Fe²⁺) and ferric (Fe³⁺) forms. Additionally, even though iron is abundant, it is largely insoluble so cells must treat biologically available iron as a valuable commodity. Thus elaborate mechanisms have evolved to absorb, re-cycle and store iron while minimizing toxicity. Focusing on rarely encountered situations, most of the existing literature suggests that iron toxicity is common. A more nuanced examination clearly demonstrates that existing regulatory processes are more than adequate to limit the toxicity of iron even in response to iron overload. Only under pathological or artificially harsh situations of exposure to excess iron does it become problematic. Here we review iron metabolism and its toxicity as well as the literature demonstrating that intracellular iron is not toxic but a stress responsive programmed cell death-inducing second messenger.

Iron bioavailability in larvae yellow snapper (Lutjanus argentiventris): cloning and expression analysis of ferritin-H

Ferritin is a major intracellular iron storage protein in higher vertebrates and plays an important role in iron metabolism. In this study, ferritin H subunit was cloned from the larvae of yellow snapper, Lutjanus argentiventris, by rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) following in silico transcriptome analysis. The full-length cDNAs of the LaFeH was 1231 bp in length encoding 177 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass (MW) about 20.82 kDa and theoretical isoelectric point (pI) of 5.79. Amino acid alignment revealed that LaFeH shared high similarity with other known ferritins. It shared high degree identity to the ferritin H subunits of Lates calcarifer (99%), Takifugu rubripes (97%) and Dicentrarchus labrax (97%), and low identity to that of human (82%) and mouse (84%). By real-time PCR assays, the mRNA transcripts of LaFeH was found to be higher expressed in head-kidney, eye, heart and brain. Moreover, mRNA expression levels of LaFeH was measured by real-time PCR in larvae exposed with graded levels of iron (6.8 μg/ml and 13.6 μg/ml (Fe2x and Fe4x, respectively) and an iron chelation assay. Results showed that the expression of the LaFeH mRNA increased gradually with Fe2x in water. The LaFeH gene expression declined with increasing iron exposure levels at Fe4x. Finally, we can observe a high expression of LaFeH gene in larvae exposed to iron chelation therapy at 2 h; however this increase was gradually decreasing over time. In summary, the LaFeH gene expression for larvae yellow snapper showed a dose-depend increase following the iron treatment. These data indicated that iron bioavailability regulates LaFeH at transcriptional level in larvae yellow snapper. Further studies are necessary to ascertain their role in the immune response in teleost fish.

Two kinds of ferritin protect ixodid ticks from iron overload and consequent oxidative stress

Ticks are obligate hematophagous parasites that have successfully developed counteractive means against their hosts' immune and hemostatic mechanisms, but their ability to cope with potentially toxic molecules in the blood remains unclear. Iron is important in various physiological processes but can be toxic to living cells when in excess. We previously reported that the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis has an intracellular (HlFER1) and a secretory (HlFER2) ferritin, and both are crucial in successful blood feeding and reproduction. Ferritin gene silencing by RNA interference caused reduced feeding capacity, low body weight and high mortality after blood meal, decreased fecundity and morphological abnormalities in the midgut cells. Similar findings were also previously reported after silencing of ferritin genes in another hard tick, Ixodes ricinus. Here we demonstrated the role of ferritin in protecting the hard ticks from oxidative stress. Evaluation of oxidative stress in Hlfer-silenced ticks was performed after blood feeding or injection of ferric ammonium citrate (FAC) through detection of the lipid peroxidation product, malondialdehyde (MDA) and protein oxidation product, protein carbonyl. FAC injection in Hlfer-silenced ticks resulted in high mortality. Higher levels of MDA and protein carbonyl were detected in Hlfer-silenced ticks compared to Luciferase-injected (control) ticks both after blood feeding and FAC injection. Ferric iron accumulation demonstrated by increased staining on native HlFER was observed from 72 h after iron injection in both the whole tick and the midgut. Furthermore, weak iron staining was observed after Hlfer knockdown. Taken together, these results show that tick ferritins are crucial antioxidant molecules that protect the hard tick from iron-mediated oxidative stress during blood feeding.

The effect of bacterial challenge on ferritin regulation in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti

Secreted ferritin is the major iron storage and transport protein in insects. Here, we characterize the message and protein expression profiles of yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti) ferritin heavy chain homologue (HCH) and light chain homologue (LCH) subunits in response to iron and bacterial challenge. In vivo experiments demonstrated tissue-specific regulation of HCH and LCH expression over time post-blood meal (PBM). Transcriptional regulation of HCH and LCH was treatment specific, with differences in regulation for naïve versus mosquitoes challenged with heat-killed bacteria (HKB). Translational regulation by iron regulatory protein (IRP) binding activity for the iron-responsive element (IRE) was tissue-specific and time-dependent PBM. However, mosquitoes challenged with HKB showed little change in IRP/IRE binding activity compared to naïve animals. The changes in ferritin regulation and expression in vivo were confirmed with in vitro studies. We challenged mosquitoes with HKB followed by a blood meal to determine the effects on ferritin expression, and demonstrate a synergistic, time-dependent regulation of expression for HCH and LCH.

Multiple ferritins are vital to successful blood feeding and reproduction of the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis

Ticks are obligate hematophagous parasites and important vectors of diseases. The large amount of blood they consume contains great quantities of iron, an essential but also toxic element. The function of ferritin, an iron storage protein, and iron metabolism in ticks need to be further elucidated. Here, we investigated the function a newly identified secreted ferritin from the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis (HlFER2), together with the previously identified intracellular ferritin (HlFER1). Recombinant ferritins, expressed in Escherichia coli, were used for anti-serum preparation and were also assayed for iron-binding activity. RT-PCR and western blot analyses of different organs and developmental stages of the tick during blood feeding were performed. The localization of ferritins in different organs was demonstrated through an indirect immunofluorescent antibody test. RNA interference (RNAi) was performed to evaluate the importance of ferritin in blood feeding and reproduction of ticks. The midgut was also examined after RNAi using light and transmission electron microscopy. RT-PCR showed differences in gene expression in some organs and developmental stages. Interestingly, only HlFER2 was detected in the ovary during oviposition and in the egg despite the low mRNA transcript. RNAi induced a reduction in post-blood meal body weight, high mortality and decreased fecundity. The expression of vitellogenin genes was affected by silencing of ferritin. Abnormalities in digestive cells, including disrupted microvilli, and alteration of digestive activity were also observed. Taken altogether, our results show that the iron storage and protective functions of ferritin are crucial to successful blood feeding and reproduction of H. longicornis.

Ferritin is the key to dietary iron absorption and tissue iron detoxification in Drosophila melanogaster

Mammalian ferritin is predominantly in the cytosol, with a minor portion found in plasma. In most insects, including Drosophila melanogaster, ferritin belongs to the secretory type. The functional role of secretory ferritin in iron homeostasis remains poorly understood in insects as well as in mammalians. Here we used Drosophila to dissect the involvement of ferritin in insect iron metabolism. Midgut-specific knockdown of ferritin resulted in iron accumulation in the gut but systemic iron deficiency (37% control), accompanied by retarded development and reduced survival (3% survival), and was rescued by dietary iron supplementation (50% survival) or exacerbated by iron depletion (0% survival). These results suggest an essential role of ferritin in removing iron from enterocytes across the basolateral membrane. Expression of wild-type ferritin in the midgut, especially in the iron cell region, could significantly rescue ferritin-null mutants (first-instar larvae rescued up to early adults), indicating iron deficiency as the major cause of early death for ferritin flies. In many nonintestinal tissues, tissue-specific ferritin knockdown also caused local iron accumulation (100% increase) and resulted in severe tissue damage, as evidenced by cell loss. Overall, our study demonstrated Drosophila ferritin is essential to two key aspects of iron homeostasis: dietary iron absorption and tissue iron detoxification.

Iron exposure modifies acetylcholinesterase activity in zebrafish (Danio rerio) tissues: distinct susceptibility of tissues to iron overload

Iron is one the most abundant metals on the earth being essential for living organisms even though its free form can be toxic. The overload of this metal may be related with some disorders, like Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases, and hemochromatosis in the liver. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of iron on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in brain and liver of zebrafish and to investigate the possible correlation with the iron content in these tissues. Different corresponding concentrations of iron were tested using in vitro (0.018, 0.268, and 2.6 mM) and in vivo (1, 15, and 150 mg/l) assays. The in vitro studies showed that iron promoted a significant increase in AChE activity in brain (52%) and liver (53%) at the higher concentration (2.6 mM). In the in vivo assays, a significant increase in this enzyme activity was observed in the presence of 15 mg/l in both, brain (62%) and liver tissue (70%). Semiquantitative RT-PCR did not reveal significant changes in acetylthiocholinesterase mRNA levels. Moreover, we observed that iron content was significantly increased in liver tissue when exposed to 15 (226%) and 150 mg/l (200%). These results indicate that iron can promote significant alterations in AChE activity which probably is not directly related to the iron content in zebrafish tissues.

Decoupling ferritin synthesis from free cytosolic iron results in ferritin secretion

Ferritin is a multisubunit protein that is responsible for storing and detoxifying cytosolic iron. Ferritin can be found in serum but is relatively iron poor. Serum ferritin occurs in iron overload disorders, in inflammation, and in the genetic disorder hyperferritinemia with cataracts. We show that ferritin secretion results when cellular ferritin synthesis occurs in the relative absence of free cytosolic iron. In yeast and mammalian cells, newly synthesized ferritin monomers can be translocated into the endoplasmic reticulum and transits through the secretory apparatus. Ferritin chains can be translocated into the endoplasmic reticulum in an in vitro translation and membrane insertion system. The insertion of ferritin monomers into the ER occurs under low-free-iron conditions, as iron will induce the assembly of ferritin. Secretion of ferritin chains provides a mechanism that limits ferritin nanocage assembly and ferritin-mediated iron sequestration in the absence of the translational inhibition of ferritin synthesis.

Insect ferritins: Typical or atypical?

Insects transmit millions of cases of disease each year, and cost millions of dollars in agricultural losses. The control of insect-borne diseases is vital for numerous developing countries, and the management of agricultural insect pests is a very serious business for developed countries. Control methods should target insect-specific traits in order to avoid non-target effects, especially in mammals. Since insect cells have had a billion years of evolutionary divergence from those of vertebrates, they differ in many ways that might be promising for the insect control field-especially, in iron metabolism because current studies have indicated that significant differences exist between insect and mammalian systems. Insect iron metabolism differs from that of vertebrates in the following respects. Insect ferritins have a heavier mass than mammalian ferritins. Unlike their mammalian counterparts, the insect ferritin subunits are often glycosylated and are synthesized with a signal peptide. The crystal structure of insect ferritin also shows a tetrahedral symmetry consisting of 12 heavy chain and 12 light chain subunits in contrast to that of mammalian ferritin that exhibits an octahedral symmetry made of 24 heavy chain and 24 light chain subunits. Insect ferritins associate primarily with the vacuolar system and serve as iron transporters-quite the opposite of the mammalian ferritins, which are mainly cytoplasmic and serve as iron storage proteins. This review will discuss these differences.

Wolbachia interferes with ferritin expression and iron metabolism in insects

Wolbachia is an intracellular bacterium generally described as being a facultative reproductive parasite. However, Wolbachia is necessary for oogenesis completion in the wasp Asobara tabida. This dependence has evolved recently as a result of interference with apoptosis during oogenesis. Through comparative transcriptomics between symbiotic and aposymbiotic individuals, we observed a differential expression of ferritin, which forms a complex involved in iron storage. Iron is an essential element that is in limited supply in the cell. However, it is also a highly toxic precursor of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). Ferritin has also been shown to play a key role in host-pathogen interactions. Measuring ferritin by quantitative RT-PCR, we confirmed that ferritin was upregulated in aposymbiotic compared to symbiotic individuals. Manipulating the iron content in the diet, we showed that iron overload markedly affected wasp development and induced apoptotic processes during oogenesis in A. tabida, suggesting that the regulation of iron homeostasis may also be related to the obligate dependence of the wasp. Finally, we demonstrated that iron metabolism is influenced by the presence of Wolbachia not only in the obligate mutualism with A. tabida, but also in facultative parasitism involving Drosophila simulans and in Aedes aegypti cells. In these latter cases, the expression of Wolbachia bacterioferritin was also increased in the presence of iron, showing that Wolbachia responds to the concentration of iron. Our results indicate that Wolbachia may generally interfere with iron metabolism. The high affinity of Wolbachia for iron might be due to physiological requirement of the bacterium, but it could also be what allows the symbiont to persist in the organism by reducing the labile iron concentration, thus protecting the cell from oxidative stress and apoptosis. These findings also reinforce the idea that pathogenic, parasitic and mutualistic intracellular bacteria all use the same molecular mechanisms to survive and replicate within host cells. By impacting the general physiology of the host, the presence of a symbiont may select for host compensatory mechanisms, which extends the possible consequences of persistent endosymbiont on the evolution of their hosts.

Generation, annotation, and analysis of ESTs from midgut tissue of adult female Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes

Background

Malaria is a tropical disease caused by protozoan parasite, Plasmodium, which is transmitted to humans by various species of female anopheline mosquitoes. Anopheles stephensi is one such major malaria vector in urban parts of the Indian subcontinent. Unlike Anopheles gambiae, an African malaria vector, transcriptome of A. stephensi midgut tissue is less explored. We have therefore carried out generation, annotation, and analysis of expressed sequence tags from sugar-fed and Plasmodium yoelii infected blood-fed (post 24 h) adult female A. stephensi midgut tissue.

Results

We obtained 7061 and 8306 ESTs from the sugar-fed and P. yoelii infected mosquito midgut tissue libraries, respectively. ESTs from the combined dataset formed 1319 contigs and 2627 singlets, totaling to 3946 unique transcripts. Putative functions were assigned to 1615 (40.9%) transcripts using BLASTX against UniProtKB database. Amongst unannotated transcripts, we identified 1513 putative novel transcripts and 818 potential untranslated regions (UTRs). Statistical comparison of annotated and unannotated ESTs from the two libraries identified 119 differentially regulated genes. Out of 3946 unique transcripts, only 1387 transcripts were mapped on the A. gambiae genome. These also included 189 novel transcripts, which were mapped to the unannotated regions of the genome. The EST data is available as ESTDB at .

Conclusion

3946 unique transcripts were successfully identified from the adult female A. stephensi midgut tissue. These data can be used for microarray development for better understanding of vector-parasite relationship and to study differences or similarities with other malaria vectors. Mapping of putative novel transcripts from A. stephensi on the A. gambiae genome proved fruitful in identification and annotation of several genes. Failure of some novel transcripts to map on the A. gambiae genome indicates existence of substantial genomic dissimilarities between these two potent malaria vectors.

Iron loaded ferritin secretion and inhibition by CI-976 in Aedes aegypti larval cells

Ferritin is a multimer of 24 subunits of heavy and light chains. In mammals, iron taken into cells is stored in ferritin or incorporated into iron-containing proteins. Very little ferritin is found circulating in mammalian serum; most is retained in the cytoplasm. Female mosquitoes, such as Aedes aegypti (yellow fever mosquito, Diptera), require a blood meal for oogenesis. Mosquitoes receive a potentially toxic level of iron in the blood meal which must be processed and stored. We demonstrate by (59)Fe pulse-chase experiments that cultured A. aegypti larval CCL-125 cells take up iron from culture media and store it in ferritin found mainly in the membrane fraction and secrete iron-loaded ferritin. We observe that in these larval cells ferritin co-localizes with ceramide-containing membranes in the absence of iron. With iron treatment, ferritin is found associated with ceramide-containing membranes as well as in cytoplasmic non-ceramide vesicles. Treatment of CCL-125 cells with iron and CI-976, an inhibitor of lysophospholipid acyl transferases, disrupts ferritin secretion with a concomitant decrease in cell viability. Interfering with ferritin secretion may limit the ability of mosquitoes to adjust to the high iron load of the blood meal and decrease iron delivery to the ovaries reducing egg numbers.

Exploring the mialome of ticks: an annotated catalogue of midgut transcripts from the hard tick, Dermacentor variabilis (Acari: Ixodidae)

Background

Ticks are obligate blood feeders. The midgut is the first major region of the body where blood and microbes ingested with the blood meal come in contact with the tick's internal tissues. Little is known about protein expression in the digestive tract of ticks. In this study, for analysis of global gene expression during tick attachment and feeding, we generated and sequenced 1,679 random transcripts (ESTs) from cDNA libraries from the midguts of female ticks at varying stages of feeding.

Results

Sequence analysis of the 1,679 ESTs resulted in the identification of 835 distinct transcripts, from these, a total of 82 transcripts were identified as proteins putatively directly involved in blood meal digestion, including enzymes involved in oxidative stress reduction/antimicrobial activity/detoxification, peptidase inhibitors, protein digestion (cysteine-, aspartic-, serine-, and metallo-peptidases), cell, protein and lipid binding including mucins and iron/heme metabolism and transport. A lectin-like protein with a high match to lectins in other tick species, allergen-like proteins and surface antigens important in pathogen recognition and/or antimicrobial activity were also found. Furthermore, midguts collected from the 6-day-fed ticks expressed twice as many transcripts involved in bloodmeal processing as midguts from unfed/2-day-fed ticks.

Conclusion

This tissue-specific transcriptome analysis provides an opportunity to examine the global expression of transcripts in the tick midgut and to compare the gut response to host attachment versus blood feeding and digestion. In contrast to those in salivary glands of other Ixodid ticks, most proteins in the D. variabilis midgut cDNA library were intracellular. Of the total ESTs associated with a function, an unusually large number of transcripts were associated with peptidases, cell, lipid and protein binding, and oxidative stress or detoxification. Presumably, this is consistent with their role in intracellular processing of the blood meal and response to microbial infections. The presence of many proteins with similar functions is consistent with the hypothesis that gene duplication contributed to the successful adaptation of ticks to hematophagy. Furthermore, these transcripts may be useful to scientists investigating the role of the tick midgut in blood-meal digestion, antimicrobial activity or the transmission of tick-borne pathogens.

Fate of blood meal iron in mosquitoes

Iron is an essential element of living cells and organisms as a component of numerous metabolic pathways. Hemoglobin and ferric-transferrin in vertebrate host blood are the two major iron sources for female mosquitoes. We used inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and radioisotope labeling to quantify the fate of iron supplied from hemoglobin or as transferrin in Aedes aegypti. At the end of the first gonotrophic cycle, approximately 87% of the ingested total meal heme iron was excreted, while 7% was distributed into the eggs and 6% was stored in different tissues. In contrast, approximately 8% of the iron provided as transferrin was excreted and of that absorbed, 77% was allocated to the eggs and 15% distributed in the tissues. Further analyses indicate that of the iron supplied in a blood meal, approximately 7% appears in the eggs and of this iron 98% is from hemoglobin and 2% from ferric-transferrin. Whereas, of iron from a blood meal retained in body of the female, approximately 97% is from heme and <1% is from transferrin. Evaluation of iron-binding proteins in hemolymph and egg following intake of (59)Fe-transferrin revealed that ferritin is iron loaded in these animals, and indicate that this protein plays a critical role in meal iron transport and iron storage in eggs in A. aegypti.