Potential applications of dairy whey for the production of lactic acid bacteria cultures

Integrating fruit by-products and whey for the design of folate-bioenriched innovative fermented beverages safe for human consumption

Global concerns over folate deficiency, the risks of excessive synthetic folic acid consumption, and food loss implications for environmental sustainability and food security drive needs of innovative approaches that align food by-product valorisation with folate bio-enrichment. This study explored the use of three fruit by-products extracts (grape, passion fruit, and pitaya) and whey to develop a folate bio-enriched fermented whey-based beverage. Three strains (Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus LGG, Bifidobacterium infantis BB-02, and Streptococcus thermophilus TH-4) were tested for folate production in different fermentation conditions in modified MRS medium and in a whey-based matrix prepared with water extracts of these fruit by-products. B. infantis BB-02 and S. thermophilus TH-4, alone and in co-culture, were the best folate producers. The selection of cultivation conditions, including the presence of different substrates and pH, with grape by-product water extract demonstrating the most substantial effect on folate production among the tested extracts, was crucial for successfully producing a biofortified fermented whey-based beverage (FWBB). The resulting FWBB provided 40.7 μg of folate per 100 mL after 24 h of fermentation at 37 °C, effectively leveraging food by-products. Moreover, the beverage showed no cytotoxicity in mouse fibroblast cells tests. This study highlights the potential for valorising fruit by-products and whey for the design of novel bioenriched foods, promoting health benefits and contributing to reduced environmental impact from improper disposal.

Exopolysaccharides as bio-based rheology modifiers from microalgae produced on dairy industry waste: Towards a circular bioeconomy approach

The feasibility of exopolysaccharides (EPS) production from cheese whey using Chlorella vulgaris was investigated as an example of circular bioeconomy application. The effects of dairy waste utilization in EPS biosynthesis and rheological properties were evaluated, comparing with both control conditions and commercial xanthan gum (CXG). A twofold increase in yield, up to 0.32 g L-1, was observed when Chlorella vulgaris was used for EPS production from whey rather than conventional fertilizers. Additionally, the EPS produced using cheese whey exhibited superior pseudoplasticity in the 0.4-1.0 (w/v) range compared to the control. The EPS from the whey wastewater contained functional groups similar to those of CXG (82.7 %). Moreover, the solutions containing 1 % biopolymer showed rheological profiles similar to those of the 0.4 % CXG. The molecular weight averages predominantly fell within the range of 284 to 324 kDa, as deduced using diffusion NMR, an innovative and rapid determination method for estimating EPS size. The potential applications of EPS notably extend beyond the dairy industry, reaching diverse market sectors, and thereby enhancing the competitiveness of microalgal biorefineries while contributing to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals.

Circular Bioeconomy in Action: Transforming Food Wastes into Renewable Food Resources

The growing challenge of food waste management presents a critical opportunity for advancing the circular bioeconomy, aiming to transform waste into valuable resources. This paper explores innovative strategies for converting food wastes into renewable food resources, emphasizing the integration of sustainable technologies and zero-waste principles. The main objective is to demonstrate how these approaches can contribute to a more sustainable food system by reducing environmental impacts and enhancing resource efficiency. Novel contributions of this study include the development of bioproducts from various food waste streams, highlighting the potential of underutilized resources like bread and jackfruit waste. Through case studies and experimental findings, the paper illustrates the successful application of green techniques, such as microbial fermentation and bioprocessing, in valorizing food wastes. The implications of this research extend to policy frameworks, encouraging the adoption of circular bioeconomy models that not only address waste management challenges but also foster economic growth and sustainability. These findings underscore the potential for food waste to serve as a cornerstone in the transition to a circular, regenerative economy.

In Silico Strategies to Predict Anti-aging Features of Whey Peptides

We have analysed the in silico potential of bioactive peptides from cheese whey, the most relevant by-product from the dairy industry, to bind into the active site of collagenase and elastase. The peptides generated from the hydrolysis of bovine β-lactoglobulin with three proteases (trypsin, chymotrypsin, and subtilisin) were docked onto collagenase and elastase by molecular docking. The interaction models were ranked according to their free binding energy using molecular dynamics simulations, which showed that most complexes presented favourable interactions. Interactions with elastase had significantly lower binding energies than those with collagenase. Regarding the interaction site, it was found that four bioactive peptides were positioned in collagenase's active site, while six were found in elastase's active site. Among these, the most we have found one promising collagen-binding peptide produced by chymotrypsin and two for elastase, produced by subtilisin and chymotrypsin. These in silico results can be used as a tool for designing further experiments aiming at testing the in vitro potential of the peptides found in this work.

Innovative applications of whey protein for sustainable dairy industry: Environmental and technological perspectives-A comprehensive review

Industrial waste management is critical to maintaining environmental sustainability. The dairy industry (DI), as one of the major consumers of freshwater, generates substantial whey dairy effluent, which is notably rich in organic matter and thus a significant pollutant. The effluent represents environmental risks due to its high biological and chemical oxygen demands. Today, stringent government regulations, environmental laws, and heightened consumer health awareness are compelling industries to responsibly manage and reuse whey waste. Therefore, this study investigates sustainable solutions for efficiently utilizing DI waste. Employing a systematic review approach, the research reveals that innovative technologies enable the creation of renewable, high-quality, value-added food products from dairy byproducts. These innovations offer promising sustainable waste management strategies for the dairy sector, aligning with economic interests. The main objectives of the study deal with, (a) assessing the environmental impact of dairy sector waste, (b) exploring the multifaceted nutritional and health benefits inherent in cheese whey, and (c) investigating diverse biotechnological approaches to fashion value-added, eco-friendly dairy whey-based products for potential integration into various food products, and thus fostering economic sustainability. Finally, the implications of this work span theoretical considerations, practical applications, and outline future research pathways crucial for advancing the sustainable management of dairy waste.

Impact of ultrasound and protease addition on the fermentation profile and final characteristics of fermented goat and sheep cheese whey

Goat (GCW) and sheep cheese whey (SCW) are cheese by-products that can be fermented to develop a new product. However, the limited nutrient availability for lactic acid bacteria (LAB) growth and the low stability of whey are challenges. This work evaluated the addition of protease and/or ultrasound-assisted fermentation as tools to improve GCW and SCW fermentation and the final quality of the products. Results showed that the US/protease increased by 23-32% pH decline rate (for SCW only) and modified the separation of cream (≤ 60% for GCW) and whey (≤ 80% for both whey sources, with higher values for GCW) during storage, explained by changes in the microstructure protein, fat globules, and their interactions. Furthermore, the whey source/composition (mainly lower fat content in SCW) affected the destabilization rate and the LAB viability loss (1.5-3.0 log CFU/mL), caused by nutrient depletion and low tolerance at pH ~ 4.0. Finally, exploratory results showed that fermentation under sonication (with/without protease) resulted in 24-218% higher antioxidant activity in vitro than unfermented samples. Therefore, fermentation associated with proteases/sonication can be an interesting strategy to modify GWC and SCW, and the final process chosen depends on the desired changes in whey.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05767-3.

Sustainable Approaches in Whey Cheese Production: A Review

Whey cheeses have been produced from the very early steps of cheesemaking practices as a sustainable way to utilize whey, which is the main by-product of cheesemaking. Traditional whey cheeses, manufactured with similar processes, are Ricotta, Ricotta salata or Ricottone, and Ricotta fresca in Italy; Anthotyros, Myzithra, Manouri, Xynomyzithra, and Urda in Greece; Urda in Serbia and Romania as well as in other countries such as Israel; Lor in Turkey; Anari in Cyprus; Skuta in Croatia and Serbia; Gjetost and Brunost in Norway; Mesost and Messmör in Sweden; Mysuostur in Iceland; Myseost in Denmark; Requeijão in Portugal; and Requesón in Spain and Mexico. The production of whey cheese is based on the denaturation of whey proteins by heating to 88–92 °C. The specific processing conditions and aspects of the microbiology of whey cheeses are discussed. The special characteristics of whey cheeses, which are high pH and high moisture content, make them susceptible to microbial growth. Due to the limited shelf life of these products, extended research has been carried out to extend the shelf life of whey cheese. The sustainable preservation approaches, such as modified atmosphere packaging, addition of herbs and/or plant extracts, and bio-preservation methods are reviewed. Moreover, novel whey cheeses focused on functional properties have developed during the last 10 years.

Microorganisms-An Effective Tool to Intensify the Utilization of Sulforaphane

Sulforaphane (SFN) was generated by the hydrolysis of glucoraphanin under the action of myrosinase. However, due to the instability of SFN, the bioavailability of SFN was limited. Meanwhile, the gut flora obtained the ability to synthesize myrosinase and glucoraphanin, which could be converted into SFN in the intestine. However, the ability of microorganisms to synthesize myrosinase in the gut was limited. Therefore, microorganisms with myrosinase synthesis ability need to be supplemented. With the development of research, microorganisms with high levels of myrosinase synthesis could be obtained by artificial selection and gene modification. Researchers found the SFN production rate of the transformed microorganisms could be significantly improved. However, despite applying transformation technology and regulating nutrients to microorganisms, it still could not provide the best efficiency during generating SFN and could not accomplish colonization in the intestine. Due to the great effect of microencapsulation on improving the colonization ability of microorganisms, microencapsulation is currently an important way to deliver microorganisms into the gut. This article mainly analyzed the possibility of obtaining SFN-producing microorganisms through gene modification and delivering them to the gut via microencapsulation to improve the utilization rate of SFN. It could provide a theoretical basis for expanding the application scope of SFN.

Characterization and Evaluation of Proteolysis Products during the Fermentation of Acid Whey and Fish Waste and Potential Applications

Reduction of waste in the food industry is critical to sustainability. This work represents one strategy of valorizing waste streams from the dairy (acid whey) and fisheries industries (fish waste) using fermentation. The main approach was to characterize the peptides produced by this fermentation under three conditions: (1) fermentation without adding inoculum; (2) with the addition of a single lactic acid bacterial strain; and (3) the addition of a consortium of lactic acid bacteria. Previous results indicated that the rapid acidification of this fermentation was advantageous for its food safety and microbial activity. This work complements our previous results by defining the rate of peptide production due to protein digestion and using two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis and proteomic analysis to give a more detailed identification of the peptides produced from different waste streams. These results provide important information on this process for eventual applications in industrial fermentation and, ultimately, the efficient valorization of these waste streams.

Lactic Acid Bacteria as Biocontrol Agents against Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) Pathogens

Biological control offers an alternative to chemical pesticides, which are inconsistent with the global trend of “going green”. Biological control includes various approaches, from natural predators to biologically produced molecules. This article focuses on the selection of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as biological control agents against potato pathogens. The scope included evaluating the antimicrobial activity of 100 LAB strains against ten phytopatogens (Pectobacterium carotovorum, Streptomyces scabiei, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium sambucinum, Alternaria solani, Alternaria, tenuissima, Alternaria alternata, Phoma exigua, Rhizoctonia solani, Colletotrichum coccodes) by cross-streak plate method. HPLC determined the metabolic profiles for the most active LAB strains, and lactic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid and ethanol were found in the largest quantities. The strain Lactiplantibacillus plantarum KB2 LAB 03 was finally selected and cultured on supplemented acid whey. After the selection in laboratory tests, the strain KB2 LAB 03 was assessed in situ on seed potatoes against phytopathogens. The test showed a 40–90% reduction of eight potato pathogens infestation; only F. sambucinum and F. oxysporum were not inhibited at all. L. plantarum KB2 LAB 03 was proposed as the potential biocontrol agent for the potato protection against phytopathogens.

Past, Present, and Future Perspectives on Whey as a Promising Feedstock for Bioethanol Production by Yeast

Concerns about fossil fuel depletion and the environmental effects of greenhouse gas emissions have led to widespread fermentation-based production of bioethanol from corn starch or sugarcane. However, competition for arable land with food production has led to the extensive investigation of lignocellulosic sources and waste products of the food industry as alternative sources of fermentable sugars. In particular, whey, a lactose-rich, inexpensive byproduct of dairy production, is available in stable, high quantities worldwide. This review summarizes strategies and specific factors essential for efficient lactose/whey fermentation to ethanol. In particular, we cover the most commonly used strains and approaches for developing high-performance strains that tolerate fermentation conditions. The relevant genes and regulatory systems controlling lactose utilization and sources of new genes are also discussed in detail. Moreover, this review covers the optimal conditions, various feedstocks that can be coupled with whey substrates, and enzyme supplements for increasing efficiency and yield. In addition to the historical advances in bioethanol production from whey, this review explores the future of yeast-based fermentation of lactose or whey products for beverage or fuel ethanol as a fertile research area for advanced, environmentally friendly uses of industrial waste products.

Lactic acid bacteria: isolation-characterization approaches and industrial applications

The current state-of-art research pertaining to lactic acid bacteria (LAB) calls for the screening and isolation of robust LAB strains to achieve holistic exploitation of LAB and their metabolites of marketable importance. Hence it is imperative to comprehend LAB sources, growth requisites, isolation and characterization strategies necessary for featured cataloging and appropriate culturing. This review comprehensively describes various growth media and biomasses used for supporting LAB sustenance, assay procedures needed for the isolation and characterization of LAB strains, and their application in diverse sectors. The various industrial patents and their summarized claims about novel LAB strains isolated and identified, methods and media (used for detection/screening, isolation, adaptation, culturing, preservation, growth improvement), the techniques and/or methodologies supporting LAB fermentation, and applications of produced industrial metabolites in various market scenarios are detailed.

Whey butter: a promising perspective for the dairy industry

Abstract Cheese whey is the main by-product obtained in the production of cheese. Despite its high nutritional value, approximately half of the whey volume generated is still disposed incorrectly, which causes damage to the ecosystem due to the high cheese whey pollutant load. Therefore, it is important to use this by-product and its components in an increasing number of applications, especially as food ingredient. This review aimed to show the technology of production of butter from whey cream, as well as showing the physico-chemical, sensory, and nutritional characteristics of the product. There were no significant variations in the physico-chemical composition of milk cream butter and whey cream butter in the literature available. As the technology to produce whey butter is quite simple, this by-product has potential to be exploited by the dairy industry. Additionally, further studies on production process, characterization, and sensory analysis are required to enable its large-scale production.

Food wastes as natural sources of lactic acid bacterial exopolysaccharides for the functional food industry: A review

Exopolysaccharides (EPSs) synthesized by lactic acid bacteria (LAB), have recently received much interest because of their various functional features in several industries. Food wastes (FWs) have become a major source of worry, as they can cause serious environmental contamination if improperly disposed. The utilization of these FWs is an excellent choice (approach) for producing value-added products such as EPSs, which will efficiently remediate wastes. The overall EPSs yield for the selected producers is strain-specific, and is heavily influenced by the nutritional and growing conditions used. This review emphasizes what is currently known about LAB's ability to generate economically relevant EPSs from FWs. In addition, a concise overview of the food industry, packaging, pharmaceutical and clinical applications application is discussed.

Functionality and Palatability of Yogurt Produced Using Beetroot Pomace Flour Granulated with Lactic Acid Bacteria

Following the idea of sustainability in food production, a yogurt premix based on beetroot (Beta vulgaris) pomace flour (BPF) was developed. BPF was granulated with lactose solution containing lactic acid bacteria (LAB) by a fluidized bed. Particle size increased ~30%. A decrease in Carr Index from 21.5 to 14.98 and Hausner ratio from 1.27 to 1.18 confirmed improved flowability of granulated BPF, whereas a decrease in water activity implied better storability. Yogurts were produced weekly from neat starters and granulated BPF (3% w/w) that were stored for up to one month (4 °C). High viability of Streptococcus thermophilus was observed. Less pronounced syneresis, higher inhibition of colon cancer cell viability (13.0-24.5%), and anti-Escherichia activity were ascribed to BPF yogurts or their supernatants (i.e., extracted whey). Acceptable palatability for humans and dogs was demonstrated. A survey revealed positive consumers' attitudes toward the granulated BPF as a premix for yogurts amended to humans and dogs. For the first time, BPF granulated with LAB was used as a premix for a fermented beverage. An initial step in the conceptualization of a novel DIY (do it yourself) formula for obtaining a fresh yogurt fortified with natural dietary fiber and antioxidants has been accomplished.

Production of nisin and lactic acid from the starch of sweet potato by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation with two stage pH adjustment

Nisin is an antimicrobial peptide which is widely used as preservative, while lactic acid is a natural organic acid applied in the food industry. The aim of this work was to study the process for nisin and lactic acid production from starch of sweet potato with simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) by Lactococcus lactis subsp. Lactis with two stage pH adjustment. The factors impacting the nisin and lactic acid production including starch concentration, glucosidase concentration, CaCO₃ and Tween-80 were studied. The nisin titre reached a high of 2516.41 IU/mL, while the lactic acid reached a high of 37.06 g/L when the optimal conditions were 40 g/L starch, 100 U glucosidase/g starch, 2.5% CaCO₃ and 1 mL/L Tween-80. The lactic acid and nisin were separated by a two stage pH adjustment at last. The SSF of starch from sweet potato coupled with a two stage pH adjustment is a promising method to produce nisin and lactic acid.

Dairy By-Products: A Review on the Valorization of Whey and Second Cheese Whey

The search for new food products that promote consumers health has always been of great interest. The dairy industry is perhaps the best example regarding the emergence of new products with claimed health benefits. Cheese whey (CW), the by-product resulting from cheese production, and second cheese whey (SCW), which is the by-product of whey cheese manufacture, have proven to contain potential ingredients for the development of food products with improved nutritional characteristics and other functionalities. Nowadays, due to their nutritional quality, whey products have gained a prominent position among healthy food products. However, for a long time, CW and SCW were usually treated as waste or as animal feed. Due to their high organic content, these by-products can cause serious environmental problems if discarded without appropriate treatment. Small and medium size dairy companies do not have the equipment and structure to process whey and second cheese whey. In these cases, generally, they are used for animal feed or discarded without an appropriate treatment, being the cause of several constraints. There are several studies regarding CW valorization and there is a wide range of whey products in the market. However, in the case of SCW, there remains a lack of studies regarding its nutritional and functional properties, as well as ways to reuse this by-product in order to create economic value and reduce environmental impacts associated to its disposal.

A rapid screening method to evaluate acidifying activity by lactic acid bacteria

The determination of pH in fermented milk is an important parameter for monitoring the production of acid by lactic acid bacteria (LAB). In this work, a colorimetric method is proposed that allows a fast determination of LAB acidification ability by evaluation of pH drop in whey fermentation. The proposed method uses spectrophotometry to measure the pH change by bacteria and uses bromocresol purple as a pH indicator dye. The absorbance at 430 nm of a buffer solution with bromocresol purple was found to be correlated with pH values. This colorimetric assay was linear within the pH range of 4.6-7.0. Upon regression analysis, linear equation y = -0.1267× + 0.9196 was obtained having r² value of 0.9927. The assay was validated by the use of LAB fermentation in sweet whey and comparison to the values obtained by glass electrode/pH meter. Estimation of acidification activity of LAB in whey was found to be similar in both methods (r = 0.801, p > 0.05). The proposed procedure presents a viable alternative to the measurement of pH by the standard method and allows the simultaneous and fast screening of LAB acidifying activity.

Lactic acid production using cheese whey based medium in a stirred tank reactor by a ccpA mutant of Lacticaseibacillus casei

In lactobacilli, CcpA is known to modulate the expression of genes involved in sugar metabolism, stress response and aerobic adaptation. This study aimed to evaluate a ccpA mutant of Lacticaseibacillus casei BL23 to increase lactic acid production using cheese whey. The ccpA derivative (BL71) showed better growth than the L. casei wild-type in the whey medium. In a stirred tank reactor, at 48 h, lactate production by BL71 was eightfold higher than that by BL23. In batch fermentations, the final values reached were 44.23 g L^-1 for BL71 and 27.58 g L^-1 for BL23. Due to a decrease in the delay of lactate production in the mutant, lactate productivity increased from 0.17 g (L.h)^-1 with BL23 to 0.80 g (L.h)^-1 with BL71. We found that CcpA would play additional roles in nitrogen metabolism by the regulation of the proteolytic system. BL71 displayed higher activity of the PepX, PepQ and PrtP enzymes than BL23. Analysis of prtP expression confirmed this deregulation in BL71. Promoter analysis of the prtP gene revealed CcpA binding sites with high identity to the cre consensus sequence and the interaction of CcpA with this promoter was confirmed in vitro. We postulate that deregulation of the proteolytic system in BL71 allows a better exploitation of nitrogen resources in cheese whey, resulting in enhanced fermentation capacity. Therefore, the ccpA gene could be a good target for future technological developments aimed at effective and inexpensive lactate production from dairy industrial wastes.

Invited review: Acid whey trends and health benefits

In recent years, acid whey production has increased due to a growing demand for Greek yogurt and acid-coagulated cheeses. Acid whey is a dairy by-product for which the industry has long struggled to find a sustainable application. Bulk amounts of acid whey associated with the dairy industry have led to increasing research on ways to valorize it. Industry players are finding ways to use acid whey on-site with ultrafiltration techniques and biodigesters, to reduce transportation costs and provide energy for the facility. Academia has sought to further investigate practical uses and benefits of this by-product. Although modern research has shown many other possible applications for acid whey, no comprehensive review yet exists about its composition, utilization, and health benefits. In this review, the industrial trends, the applications and uses, and the potential health benefits associated with the consumption of acid whey are discussed. The proximal composition of acid whey is discussed in depth. In addition, the potential applications of acid whey, such as its use as a starting material in the production of fermented beverages, as growth medium for cultivation of lactic acid bacteria in replacement of commercial media, and as a substrate for the isolation of lactose and minerals, are reviewed. Finally, the potential health benefits of the major protein constituents of acid whey, bioactive phospholipids, and organic acids such as lactic acid are described. Acid whey has promising applications related to potential health benefits, ranging from antibacterial effects to cognitive development for babies to human gut health.

Effect of by-products from the dairy industry as alternative inducers of recombinant β-galactosidase expression

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the efficiency of lactose derived from cheese whey and cheese whey permeate as inducer of recombinant Kluyveromyces sp. β-galactosidase enzyme produced in Escherichia coli. Two E. coli strains, BL21(DE3) and Rosetta (DE3), were used in order to produce the recombinant enzyme. Samples were evaluated for enzyme activity, total protein content, and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) analysis after induction with isopropyl-β-D-1-thiogalactoside (IPTG) (0.05 and 1 mM) and lactose, cheese whey, and cheese whey permeate solutions (1, 10, and 20 g/L lactose) at shake-flask cultivation, and whey permeate solution (10 g/L lactose) at bioreactor scale.

RESULTS

The highest specific activities obtained with IPTG as inducer (0.05 mM) after 9 h of induction, were 23 and 33 U/mg_protein with BL21(DE3) and Rosetta(DE3) strains, respectively. Inductions performed with lactose and cheese whey permeate (10 and 20 g/L lactose) showed the highest specific activities at the evaluated hours, exhibiting better results than those obtained with IPTG. Specific activity of recombinant β-galactosidase using whey permeate (10 g/L lactose) showed values of approximately 46 U/mg_protein after 24-h induction at shake-flask study, and approximately 26 U/mg_protein after 16-h induction at bench bioreactor.

CONCLUSIONS

The induction with cheese whey permeate was more efficient for recombinant β-galactosidase expression than the other inducers tested, and thus, represents an alternative form to reduce costs in recombinant protein production.

Encapsulation of Lactobacillus spp. using bovine and buffalo cheese whey and their application in orange juice

The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the efficiency of bovine (CW) and buffalo cheese whey (BCW) as encapsulating agents for the spray-drying (SD) of endogenous Lactobacillus pentosus ML 82 and the reference strain Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014. Their protective features were also tested for resistance to storage (90 days, 25 °C), simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT) conditions, and for their application in orange juice. Survival rates after SD were approximately 95% in all samples tested, meaning both CW and BCW performed satisfactorily. After 90 days of storage, both species remained above 7 log Colony Forming Units (CFU)/g. However, CW generally enabled higher bacterial viability throughout this period. CW microcapsule characteristics were also more stable, which is indicated by the fact that BCW had higher moist content. Under GIT conditions, encapsulated lactobacilli had higher survival rates than free cells regardless of encapsulating agent. Even so, results indicate that CW and BCW perform better under gastric conditions than intestinal conditions. Regarding their use in orange juice, coating materials were probably dissolved due to low pH, and both free and encapsulated bacteria had similar survival rates. Overall, CW and BCW are suitable encapsulating agents for lactic acid bacteria, as they provided protection during storage and against harmful GIT conditions.

Cheese Whey Processing: Integrated Biorefinery Concepts and Emerging Food Applications

Cheese whey constitutes one of the most polluting by-products of the food industry, due to its high organic load. Thus, in order to mitigate the environmental concerns, a large number of valorization approaches have been reported; mainly targeting the recovery of whey proteins and whey lactose from cheese whey for further exploitation as renewable resources. Most studies are predominantly focused on the separate implementation, either of whey protein or lactose, to configure processes that will formulate value-added products. Likewise, approaches for cheese whey valorization, so far, do not exploit the full potential of cheese whey, particularly with respect to food applications. Nonetheless, within the concept of integrated biorefinery design and the transition to circular economy, it is imperative to develop consolidated bioprocesses that will foster a holistic exploitation of cheese whey. Therefore, the aim of this article is to elaborate on the recent advances regarding the conversion of whey to high value-added products, focusing on food applications. Moreover, novel integrated biorefining concepts are proposed, to inaugurate the complete exploitation of cheese whey to formulate novel products with diversified end applications. Within the context of circular economy, it is envisaged that high value-added products will be reintroduced in the food supply chain, thereby enhancing sustainability and creating "zero waste" processes.