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Extracellular Polymeric Substances: Still Promising Antivirals. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061337. [PMID: 35746808 PMCID: PMC9227104 DOI: 10.3390/v14061337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Sulfated polysaccharides and other polyanions have been promising candidates in antiviral research for decades. These substances gained attention as antivirals when they demonstrated a high inhibitory effect in vitro against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other enveloped viruses. However, that initial interest was followed by wide skepticism when in vivo assays refuted the initial results. In this paper we review the use of sulfated polysaccharides, and other polyanions, in antiviral therapy, focusing on extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs). We maintain that, in spite of those early difficulties, the use of polyanions and, specifically, the use of EPSs, in antiviral therapy should be reconsidered. We base our claim in several points. First, early studies showed that the main disadvantage of sulfated polysaccharides and polyanions is their low bioavailability, but this difficulty can be overcome by the use of adequate administration strategies, such as nebulization of aerosols to gain access to respiratory airways. Second, several sulfated polysaccharides and EPSs have demonstrated to be non-toxic in animals. Finally, these macromolecules are non-specific and therefore they might be used against different variants or even different viruses.
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Laroche C. Exopolysaccharides from Microalgae and Cyanobacteria: Diversity of Strains, Production Strategies, and Applications. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20050336. [PMID: 35621987 PMCID: PMC9148076 DOI: 10.3390/md20050336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Microalgae and cyanobacteria are photosynthetic organisms that can produce/accumulate biomolecules with industrial interest. Among these molecules, EPSs are macromolecular polysaccharidic compounds that present biological activities and physico-chemical properties, allowing to consider their valorization in diverse commercial markets, such as cosmetic, therapeutic, nutraceutic, or hydrocolloids areas. The number of microalgae and cyanobacteria strains described to produce such EPSs has increased in recent years as, among the 256 producing strains gathered in this review, 86 were published in the last 10 years (~33%). Moreover, with the rise of research on microalgae EPSs, a variety of monosaccharides compositions have been discovered, highlighting the versatility of these organisms. If some production strategies can be applied to increase EPS production yields, it appears that case by case studies are needed to promote EPS synthesis by a strain, as many responses exist. This paper proposes an up-to-date state of the art of the diversity of microalgae and cyanobacteria EPS-producing strains, associated to the variability of compositions. The strategies for the production and extraction of the polymers are also discussed. Finally, an overview of the biological activities and physico-chemical properties allow one to consider their use on several commercial markets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Laroche
- Clermont Auvergne INP, CNRS, Institut Pascal, Université Clermont-Auvergne, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
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Wei Q, Fu G, Wang K, Yang Q, Zhao J, Wang Y, Ji K, Song S. Advances in Research on Antiviral Activities of Sulfated Polysaccharides from Seaweeds. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15050581. [PMID: 35631407 PMCID: PMC9147703 DOI: 10.3390/ph15050581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, various viral diseases have suddenly erupted, resulting in widespread infection and death. A variety of biological activities from marine natural products have gradually attracted the attention of people. Seaweeds have a wide range of sources, huge output, and high economic benefits. This is very promising in the pharmaceutical industry. In particular, sulfated polysaccharides derived from seaweeds, considered a potential source of bioactive compounds for drug development, have shown antiviral activity against a broad spectrum of viruses, mainly including common DNA viruses and RNA viruses. In addition, sulfated polysaccharides can also improve the body’s immunity. This review focuses on recent advances in antiviral research on the sulfated polysaccharides from seaweeds, including carrageenan, galactan, fucoidan, alginate, ulvan, p-KG03, naviculan, and calcium spirulan. We hope that this review will provide new ideas for the development of COVID-19 therapeutics and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Wei
- Marine College, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China; (Q.W.); (K.W.); (Q.Y.); (J.Z.); (Y.W.)
| | - Guoqiang Fu
- Weihaiwei People’s Hospital, Weihai 264200, China;
| | - Ke Wang
- Marine College, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China; (Q.W.); (K.W.); (Q.Y.); (J.Z.); (Y.W.)
| | - Qiong Yang
- Marine College, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China; (Q.W.); (K.W.); (Q.Y.); (J.Z.); (Y.W.)
| | - Jiarui Zhao
- Marine College, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China; (Q.W.); (K.W.); (Q.Y.); (J.Z.); (Y.W.)
| | - Yuan Wang
- Marine College, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China; (Q.W.); (K.W.); (Q.Y.); (J.Z.); (Y.W.)
| | - Kai Ji
- Department of Plastic Surgery, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing 100029, China
- Correspondence: (K.J.); (S.S.)
| | - Shuliang Song
- Marine College, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China; (Q.W.); (K.W.); (Q.Y.); (J.Z.); (Y.W.)
- Correspondence: (K.J.); (S.S.)
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Rosales-Mendoza S, García-Silva I, González-Ortega O, Sandoval-Vargas JM, Malla A, Vimolmangkang S. The Potential of Algal Biotechnology to Produce Antiviral Compounds and Biopharmaceuticals. Molecules 2020; 25:E4049. [PMID: 32899754 PMCID: PMC7571207 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25184049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergence of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus has led to an unprecedented pandemic, which demands urgent development of antiviral drugs and antibodies; as well as prophylactic approaches, namely vaccines. Algae biotechnology has much to offer in this scenario given the diversity of such organisms, which are a valuable source of antiviral and anti-inflammatory compounds that can also be used to produce vaccines and antibodies. Antivirals with possible activity against SARS-CoV-2 are summarized, based on previously reported activity against Coronaviruses or other enveloped or respiratory viruses. Moreover, the potential of algae-derived anti-inflammatory compounds to treat severe cases of COVID-19 is contemplated. The scenario of producing biopharmaceuticals in recombinant algae is presented and the cases of algae-made vaccines targeting viral diseases is highlighted as valuable references for the development of anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Successful cases in the production of functional antibodies are described. Perspectives on how specific algae species and genetic engineering techniques can be applied for the production of anti-viral compounds antibodies and vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Rosales-Mendoza
- Laboratorio de Biofarmacéuticos Recombinantes, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. Manuel Nava 6, San Luis Potosí 78210, Mexico; (I.G.-S.); (O.G.-O.); (J.M.S.-V.)
- Sección de Biotecnología, Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud y Biomedicina, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Sierra Leona 550, Lomas 2. Sección, San Luis Potosí 78210, Mexico
| | - Ileana García-Silva
- Laboratorio de Biofarmacéuticos Recombinantes, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. Manuel Nava 6, San Luis Potosí 78210, Mexico; (I.G.-S.); (O.G.-O.); (J.M.S.-V.)
- Sección de Biotecnología, Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud y Biomedicina, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Sierra Leona 550, Lomas 2. Sección, San Luis Potosí 78210, Mexico
| | - Omar González-Ortega
- Laboratorio de Biofarmacéuticos Recombinantes, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. Manuel Nava 6, San Luis Potosí 78210, Mexico; (I.G.-S.); (O.G.-O.); (J.M.S.-V.)
| | - José M. Sandoval-Vargas
- Laboratorio de Biofarmacéuticos Recombinantes, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. Manuel Nava 6, San Luis Potosí 78210, Mexico; (I.G.-S.); (O.G.-O.); (J.M.S.-V.)
- Sección de Biotecnología, Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud y Biomedicina, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Sierra Leona 550, Lomas 2. Sección, San Luis Potosí 78210, Mexico
| | - Ashwini Malla
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
- Research Unit for Plant-Produced Pharmaceuticals, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Sornkanok Vimolmangkang
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
- Research Unit for Plant-Produced Pharmaceuticals, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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Venkateskumar K, Parasuraman S, Chuen LY, Ravichandran V, Balamurgan S. Exploring Antimicrobials from the Flora and Fauna of Marine: Opportunities and Limitations. Curr Drug Discov Technol 2020; 17:507-514. [PMID: 31424372 DOI: 10.2174/1570163816666190819141344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
About 95% of earth living space lies deep below the ocean's surface and it harbors extraordinary diversity of marine organisms. Marine biodiversity is an exceptional reservoir of natural products, bioactive compounds, nutraceuticals and other potential compounds of commercial value. Timeline for the development of the drug from a plant, synthetic and other alternative sources is too lengthy. Exploration of the marine environment for potential bioactive compounds has gained focus and huge opportunity lies ahead for the exploration of such vast resources in the ocean. Further, the evolution of superbugs with increasing resistance to the currently available drugs is alarming and it needs coordinated efforts to resolve them. World Health Organization recommends the need and necessity to develop effective bioactive compounds to combat problems associated with antimicrobial resistance. Based on these factors, it is imperative to shift the focus towards the marine environment for potential bioactive compounds that could be utilized to tackle antimicrobial resistance. Current research trends also indicate the huge strides in research involving marine environment for drug discovery. The objective of this review article is to provide an overview of marine resources, recently reported research from marine resources, challenges, future research prospects in the marine environment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Subramani Parasuraman
- Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Jalan Bedong-Semeling, 08100 Bedong, Kedah, Malaysia
| | - Leow Y Chuen
- Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Jalan Bedong-Semeling, 08100 Bedong, Kedah, Malaysia
| | - Veerasamy Ravichandran
- Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Jalan Bedong-Semeling, 08100 Bedong, Kedah, Malaysia
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Abstract
Disease ailments are changing the patterns, and the new diseases are emerging due to changing environments. The enormous growth of world population has overburdened the existing resources for the drugs. And hence, the drug manufacturers are always on the lookout for new resources to develop effective and safe drugs for the increasing demands of the world population. Seventy-five percentage of earth's surface is covered by water but research into the pharmacology of marine organisms is limited, and most of it still remains unexplored. Marine environment represents countless and diverse resource for new drugs to combat major diseases such as cancer or malaria. It also offers an ecological resource comprising a variety of aquatic plants and animals. These aquatic organisms are screened for antibacterial, immunomodulator, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, analgesic, and antimalarial properties. They are used for new drug developments extensively across the world. Marine pharmacology offers the scope for research on these drugs of marine origin. Few institutes in India offer such opportunities which can help us in the quest for new drugs. This is an extensive review of the drugs developed and the potential new drug candidates from marine origin along with the opportunities for research on marine derived products. It also gives the information about the institutes in India which offer marine pharmacology related courses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harshad Malve
- Lead Medical, Asia Pacific Region, Ferring Pharmaceuticals Pvt. Ltd., Elphinstone (West), Mumbai, India
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de Jesus Raposo MF, de Morais AMMB, de Morais RMSC. Bioactivity and Applications of Polysaccharides from Marine Microalgae. POLYSACCHARIDES 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-16298-0_47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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Raposo MFDJ, de Morais AMMB, de Morais RMSC. Influence of sulphate on the composition and antibacterial and antiviral properties of the exopolysaccharide from Porphyridium cruentum. Life Sci 2014; 101:56-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2014.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Mayer AMS, Rodríguez AD, Taglialatela-Scafati O, Fusetani N. Marine pharmacology in 2009-2011: marine compounds with antibacterial, antidiabetic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral activities; affecting the immune and nervous systems, and other miscellaneous mechanisms of action. Mar Drugs 2013; 11:2510-73. [PMID: 23880931 PMCID: PMC3736438 DOI: 10.3390/md11072510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Revised: 06/04/2013] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The peer-reviewed marine pharmacology literature from 2009 to 2011 is presented in this review, following the format used in the 1998–2008 reviews of this series. The pharmacology of structurally-characterized compounds isolated from marine animals, algae, fungi and bacteria is discussed in a comprehensive manner. Antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral pharmacological activities were reported for 102 marine natural products. Additionally, 60 marine compounds were observed to affect the immune and nervous system as well as possess antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory effects. Finally, 68 marine metabolites were shown to interact with a variety of receptors and molecular targets, and thus will probably contribute to multiple pharmacological classes upon further mechanism of action studies. Marine pharmacology during 2009–2011 remained a global enterprise, with researchers from 35 countries, and the United States, contributing to the preclinical pharmacology of 262 marine compounds which are part of the preclinical pharmaceutical pipeline. Continued pharmacological research with marine natural products will contribute to enhance the marine pharmaceutical clinical pipeline, which in 2013 consisted of 17 marine natural products, analogs or derivatives targeting a limited number of disease categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro M. S. Mayer
- Department of Pharmacology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, 555 31st Street, Downers Grove, Illinois 60515, USA
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-630-515-6951; Fax: +1-630-971-6414
| | - Abimael D. Rodríguez
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Orazio Taglialatela-Scafati
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples “Federico II”, Via D. Montesano 49, I-80131 Napoli, Italy; E-Mail:
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Cabral MES, Dias DDQ, Sales DL, Oliveira OP, Teles DA, Filho JADA, de Sousa JGG, Coutinho HDM, da Costa JGM, Kerntopf MR, Alves RRDN, Almeida WDO. Evaluations of the Antimicrobial Activities and Chemical Compositions of Body Fat from the Amphibians Leptodactylus macrosternum Miranda-Ribeiro (1926) and Leptodactylus vastus Adolf Lutz (1930) in Northeastern Brazil. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE : ECAM 2013; 2013:913671. [PMID: 23710241 PMCID: PMC3655571 DOI: 10.1155/2013/913671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2013] [Revised: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Leptodactylus macrosternum and L. vastus (family: Leptodactylidae) are commonly encountered in the "Caatinga" biome in northern Brazil. The body fat of L. vastus is used as a zootherapeutic for treating a number of human maladies. The aim of this work was to determine the chemical composition of the body fats of L. macrosternum and L. vastus and to evaluate their antimicrobial activities as well as the ecological implications of their use in traditional folk medicine. Oils were extracted from body fat located in the ventral region of L. macrosternum (OLM) and L. vastus (OLV) using hexane as a solvent. The fatty acids were identified by GC-MS. The antimicrobial activities of the oils, either alone or in combination with antibiotics and antifungal drugs, were tested on standard strains of microorganisms as well as on multiresistant strains of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus. OLM contained 40% saturated and 60% unsaturated fatty acids, while OLV contained 58.33% saturated and 41.67% unsaturated fatty acids. Our results indicated that both OLM and OLV demonstrated relevant antimicrobial activities (with MIC 256 μ g/mL for both) against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida krusei. However, no antimicrobial effects were observed when these oils were combined with antibiotics or antifungal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Débora Lima Sales
- Laboratory of Zoology, Regional University of Cariri-URCA, Pimenta, 63105-000 Crato, CE, Brazil
| | - Olga Paiva Oliveira
- Laboratory of Zoology, Regional University of Cariri-URCA, Pimenta, 63105-000 Crato, CE, Brazil
| | - Diego Alves Teles
- Laboratory of Zoology, Regional University of Cariri-URCA, Pimenta, 63105-000 Crato, CE, Brazil
| | | | | | - Henrique Douglas Melo Coutinho
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Regional University of Cariri-URCA, Pimenta, 63105-000 Crato, CE, Brazil
| | | | - Marta Regina Kerntopf
- Laboratory of Phamacology and Medicinal Chemistry, Regional University of Cariri-URCA, Pimenta, 63105-000 Crato, CE, Brazil
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Sun HH, Mao WJ, Jiao JY, Xu JC, Li HY, Chen Y, Qi XH, Chen YL, Xu J, Zhao CQ, Hou YJ, Yang YP. Structural characterization of extracellular polysaccharides produced by the marine fungus Epicoccum nigrum JJY-40 and their antioxidant activities. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2011; 13:1048-1055. [PMID: 21279405 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-011-9368-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Accepted: 01/12/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Two extracellular polysaccharides, ENP1 and ENP2, were isolated from the fermentation liquid of the marine fungus Epicoccum nigrum JJY-40 by anion-exchange chromatography and gel-filtration chromatography, and their structures were investigated using chemical and spectroscopic methods including methylation analysis and NMR spectroscopy. The results demonstrated that ENP1 was composed of mannose, glucose, and galactose in the molar ratio of 5.0:2.1:1.0, and the main chain of the polysaccharide consisted of (1 → 2)-linked mannose, (1 → 3)-linked mannose, terminal mannose, (1 → 6)-linked glucose, (1 → 4)-linked glucose, and (1 → 4)-linked galactose. ENP2 was composed of mannose, galactose, glucose, and glucuronic acid in a molar ratio of 12.4:11.2:8.3:1.0, and its glycosidic linkage patterns included terminal mannose, (1 → 6)-linked glucose, (1 → 4)-linked galactose, and (1 → 3)-linked mannose. The two polysaccharides had a partially branched structure with branch point located at C-3 position of (1 → 6)-linked glucose residue. The molecular weights of ENP1 and ENP2 were 19.2 kDa and 32.7 kDa, respectively. Antioxidant properties of the two polysaccharides were evaluated with hydroxyl, superoxide, and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activities and lipid peroxidation inhibition in vitro, and results showed that ENP2 and ENP1 had good antioxidant activities, especially ENP2. ENP2 could be effective as a potential antioxidant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Hong Sun
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, Institute of Marine Drug and Food, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China
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Sulfated polysaccharides in marine sponges: extraction methods and anti-HIV activity. Mar Drugs 2011; 9:139-53. [PMID: 21339952 PMCID: PMC3039475 DOI: 10.3390/md9010139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2010] [Revised: 01/09/2011] [Accepted: 01/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The extraction, fractionation and HIV-1 inhibition potential of polysaccharides extracted from three species of marine sponges, Erylus discophorus, Cliona celata and Stelletta sp., collected in the Northeastern Atlantic, is presented in this work. The anti-HIV activity of 23 polysaccharide pellets and three crude extracts was tested. Crude extracts prepared from Erylus discophorus specimens were all highly active against HIV-1 (90 to 95% inhibition). Cliona celata pellets showed low polysaccharide content (bellow 38.5%) and almost no anti-HIV activity (<10% inhibition). Stelletta sp. pellets, although quite rich in polysaccharide (up to 97.3%), showed only modest bioactivity (<36% HIV-1 inhibition). Erylus discophorus pellets were among the richest in terms of polysaccharide content (up to 98%) and the most active against HIV-1 (up to 95% inhibition). Chromatographic fractionation of the polysaccharide pellet obtained from a specimen of Erylus discophorus (B161) yielded only modestly active fractions. However, we could infer that the active molecule is most probably a high molecular weight sulfated polysaccharide (>2000 kDa), whose mechanism is possibly preventing viral attachment and entry (fusion inhibitor).
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