Carboxymethyl cellulose based hybrid material for sustained release of protein drugs

Applications of propolis-based materials in wound healing

Due to its excellent antiseptic efficacy and antimicrobial properties, propolis has shown attractive advantages in wound dressings. However, an inclusive review of the propolis-based materials as a wound dressing is still lacking. The current short review summarizes the skin wound healing process, relates evaluation parameters, and then reviews the refined propolis-based materials dressings such as antimicrobial property, adhesion and hemostasis, anti-inflammatory and substance delivery. The approaches implemented to achieve these functions are classified and discussed. Furthermore, applications of propolis wound dressing for treating different types of wounds such as heal wounds, burns, and ulcers are presented. The future directions of propolis-based wound dressings for wound healing are further proposed. This review showed that propolis-based materials might be a promising new dressing for wound occlusion and tissue repairing.

Organized mineralized cellulose nanostructures for biomedical applications

Cellulose is the most abundant naturally-occurring polymer, and possesses a one-dimensional (1D) anisotropic crystalline nanostructure with outstanding mechanical robustness, biocompatibility, renewability and rich surface chemistry in the form of nanocellulose in nature. Such features make cellulose an ideal bio-template for directing the bio-inspired mineralization of inorganic components into hierarchical nanostructures that are promising in biomedical applications. In this review, we will summarize the chemistry and nanostructure characteristics of cellulose and discuss how these favorable characteristics regulate the bio-inspired mineralization process for manufacturing the desired nanostructured bio-composites. We will focus on uncovering the design and manipulation principles of local chemical compositions/constituents and structural arrangement, distribution, dimensions, nanoconfinement and alignment of bio-inspired mineralization over multiple length-scales. In the end, we will underline how these cellulose biomineralized composites benefit biomedical applications. It is expected that this deep understanding of design and fabrication principles will enable construction of outstanding structural and functional cellulose/inorganic composites for more challenging biomedical applications.

Sequestration and toxicological assessment of emerging contaminants with polypyrrole modified carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC/PPY): Case of ibuprofen pharmaceutical drug

Ibuprofen (IBU) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug released into water bodies causing toxic biological effects on living organisms. The current study aims to eliminate IBU from aqueous solutions by a novel carboxymethylcellulose/polypyrrole (CMC/PPY) composite with high removal efficiency. Pyrrole was polymerized to polypyrrole whose average size was about 20 nm on the CMC surface. The maximum removal percentage of IBU by CMC/PPY composite was optimized at initial concentration 10 mg/L, dosage 0.02 g, and pH 7 with adsorption capacity of 72.30 (mg/g) and removal of 83.17 %. IBU adsorption onto CMC/PPY theoretically fits into the Langmuir isotherm and Elovich-kinetic models. Fish and Phytotoxicity assessment were performed with zebrafish and seeds of Vigna mungo (VM) and Vigna radiata (VR). The toxicity study reveals that before adsorption, IBU shows high toxicity towards the zebrafish mortality (33 %), growth inhibition (58.52 % for VM, 60.84 % for VR), and germination (86.66 % for VM and 90 % for VR). As CMC/PPY adsorbs IBU, toxicity drastically decreases. Before adsorption, LC₅₀ was 233.02 mg/L. After adsorption, the LC₅₀ increases to 2325.07 mg/L as IBU molecules get adsorbed by CMC/PPY. These findings show the feasibility of preparing CMC/PPY composite to effectively remove pharmaceutical pollutant IBU from aqueous solutions with their toxicological assessment.

Utilization of Waste Textile Cotton by Synthesizing Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose: An Approach to Minimize Textile Solid Waste

This research uses waste textile cotton (WTC) from the textile industry as a raw material to synthesize sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) by adapting a modified etherification methodology. Yields of technical CMC (TCMC), semipurified CMC (SPCMC), and purified CMC (PCMC) were $3.45\pm 0.17$  g, $2.49\pm 0.08$  g, and $1.51\pm 0.016$  g, respectively, per gram of cotton waste. Degree of substitution (DS) values of PCMC, SPCMC, and TCMC was $0.998\pm 0.007$ , $0.79\pm 0.031$ , and $0.561\pm 0.029$ , respectively. For PCMC, SPCMC, and TCMC, the purity of the prepared different grades of CMC was $98.59\pm 0.12$ %, $78.56\pm 1.93$ %, and $61.59\pm 2.31$ %, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) peak values were 3437 cm-1, 1609 cm-1, and 1427 cm-1, proving WTC conversion to CMC. Furthermore, $2\theta$ values of X-ray diffraction (XRD) peaks were 9.7 and 20.5, confirming the transformation of WTC to CMC as well. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) have been assessed to define CMC’s thermal stability and morphology, respectively.

Design and fabrication of hybrid triple-responsive κ-carrageenan-based nanospheres for controlled drug delivery

In the last two decades, the utilization of magnetic nanospheres in intelligent polymeric structures have received increased attention of researchers in numerous biomedical applications. Here, hybrid nanostructured triple-responsive magnetic nanospheres (κ-Car-g-P(AA/DMA)@Fe₃O₄) containing inorganic iron oxide core (Fe₃O₄) and organic graft copolymeric shell based on κ-carrageenan (κ-Car) and poly(acrylic acid/dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (P(AA/DMA)) were synthesized by microwave induced co-precipitation technique. The structure, size, surface morphology, magnetic property and stability of synthesized κ-Car-g-P(AA/DMA)@Fe₃O₄ magnetic nanospheres were characterized using FTIR, UV, XRD, TEM, Zeta-sizer, and VSM. κ-Car-g-P(AA/DMA)@Fe₃O₄ nanospheres were loaded with 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) as an antineoplastic drug, and their 5-FU release behavior was explored in diverse graft yields, pH values, temperatures and in the existence of an alternating magnetic field. The κ-Car-g-P(AA/DMA)@Fe₃O₄ nanospheres demonstrated pH-, thermo-, and magnetic field-responsive 5-FU release with good biocompatibility and excellent anticancer activity. In addition, 5-FU release under 50 mT magnetic field reached to 100% within 4 h. This work exhibits that hybrid nanospheres have a triple stimuli-responsive influence, which is of principal importance for the future design and application of multi-functional responsive platforms to develop externally stimulated release of active agents and their healthcare capability.

Cellulose-Silver Composites Materials: Preparation and Applications

Cellulose has received great attention owing to its distinctive structural features, exciting physico-chemical properties, and varied applications. The combination of cellulose and silver nanoparticles currently allows to fabricate different promising functional nanocomposites with unique properties. The current work offers a wide and accurate overview of the preparation methods of cellulose-silver nanocomposite materials, also providing a punctual discussion of their potential applications in different fields (i.e., wound dressing, high-performance textiles, electronics, catalysis, sensing, antimicrobial filtering, and packaging). In particular, different preparation methods of cellulose/silver nanocomposites based on in situ thermal reduction, blending and dip-coating, or additive manufacturing techniques were thoroughly described. Hence, the correlations among the structure and physico-chemical properties in cellulose/silver nanocomposites were investigated in order to better control the final properties of the nanocomposites and analyze the key points and limitations of the current manufacturing approaches.

Recent Advances in Cellulose-Based Structures as the Wound-Healing Biomaterials: A Clinically Oriented Review

Application of wound-healing/dressing biomaterials is amongst the most promising approaches for wound repair through protection from pathogen invasion/contamination, maintaining moisture, absorbing exudates, modulating inflammation, and facilitating the healing process. A wide range of materials are used to fabricate wound-healing/dressing biomaterials. Active wound-healing/dressings are next-generation alternatives for passive biomaterials, which provide a physical barrier and induce different biological activities, such as antibacterial, antioxidant, and proliferative effects. Cellulose-based biomaterials are particularly promising due to their tunable physical, chemical, mechanical, and biological properties, accessibility, low cost, and biocompatibility. A thorough description and analysis of wound-healing/dressing structures fabricated from cellulose-based biomaterials is discussed in this review. We emphasize and highlight the fabrication methods, applied bioactive molecules, and discuss the obtained results from in vitro and in vivo models of cellulose-based wound-healing biomaterials. This review paper revealed that cellulose-based biomaterials have promising potential as the wound-dressing/healing materials and can be integrated with various bioactive agents. Overall, cellulose-based biomaterials are shown to be effective and sophisticated structures for delivery applications, safe and multi-customizable dressings, or grafts for wound-healing applications.

Development and evaluation of 1-deoxynojirimycin sustained-release delivery system: In vitro and in vivo characterization studies

We aimed to establish a 1-Deoxynojirimycin (DNJ) sustained-release delivery system to improve the hypoglycemic effect of DNJ. We used a transdermal diffusion meter in an in vitro orthogonal experiment to determine the optimal composition of the DNJ sustained-release transdermal system. Based on the in vitro analysis results, a sustained-release patch was prepared, and its pharmacokinetics and other properties were determined in vivo. The results showed that 30% hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (K_100M ), 14% carboxymethyl cellulose sodium and 26% oleic acid-azone compound as the matrix material, drug excipient, and penetration enhancer, respectively, produced an optimal DNJ sustained-release delivery system. In vitro release tests showed that the system slowly released DNJ within 12 hr, conforming to the Higuchi equation. In vivo experiments showed that the prepared patch had good hypoglycemic activity and continuously released DNJ within 10 hr. In vivo pharmacokinetic study results showed that compared to conventional patches, the prepared patch exhibited significantly different maximum concentration (C_max ), time to achieve C_max (T_max ), and area under the curve from 0 to time t (AUC_[0-t] ) as well as improved pharmacokinetics. In conclusion, the prepared DNJ patch has high stability, a sustained-release effect, and relatively good pharmacokinetics and is a safe dosage form that does not cause skin irritation.

Development of an eco-friendly biodegradable plastic from jack fruit peel cellulose with different plasticizers and Boswellia serrata as filler

Pure nanocellulose was extracted from agricultural waste material namely jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) peel through acid hydrolysis. The extraction method utilizes soapnut solution as an eco-friendly bleaching agent in order to avoid environment polluting chlorinated chemicals. Various thin films were prepared by solvent casting nanocellulose and different plasticizers namely glycerol, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, triethyl citrate along with novel filler, Boswellia serrata commonly known as frankincense. Thin films were characterized by FT-IR, XRD and the surface modifications were investigated using FESEM. The physical, mechanical, thermal properties and biodegradability of the film were also reported. The surface morphology was improved by different plasticizers and a self-assembly was obtained due to more stable hydrogen bonding between the nanocellulose, plasticizers and filler during the film formation. Thermal investigations of plasticizers/Boswellia serrata incorporated thin films revealed an increase in glass transition temperature of nanocellulose. Results indicate that these films are biodegradable and compostable in nature and could be used as substitute for petroleum derived plastics.

Recent progress in preparation and applications of chitosan/calcium phosphate composite materials

Studying the development of unique materials from sustainable and renewable resources has gained increasing concern due to the depletion of fossil resources. Chitosan and its derivatives have been considered as versatile candidates for preparing attractive materials. The fabrication of chitosan/calcium phosphate composite compounds has received much attention for the development of numerous promising products in different fields. In this short review, recent preparation strategies for chitosan/calcium phosphate composites such as freeze casting, vacuum-assisted filtration, and biomimetic mineralization were discussed. The review presented their advances for diverse applications such as bone tissue engineering implants, drug delivery, wound healing, dental caries, as well adsorption of organic and heavy metals from polluted water. The challenges and future perspectives for the application of chitosan/calcium phosphate materials in biomedical and environmental applications were also involved in this review article.

Development of polymer composites and encapsulation technology for slow-release fertilizers

The fertilizer manufacturing faces an ongoing challenge to develop its products to raise the effectiveness of their application, mainly of nitrogenous fertilizers, as well as to reduce any probable adverse ecological effect. In general, chemical fertilizers are very necessary for agricultural lands to provide the essential nutrients for plant growth, which are lost and leached into the surrounding environment during irrigation, which then leads to unwanted side effects, such as crop failure or increased losses to the environment. To solve this problem of nutrients being wasted, the most effective way is to use slow or controlled-release fertilizers (S/CRFs). The current review provides an insight vision into the methods used to save agricultural fertilizers from being wasted due to irrigation. The functional materials or physical techniques are used to maintain a steady release of nutrients. Fertilizers are encapsulated with various compounds based on synthetic or natural polymers to be used as SRFs. In this review paper, a comprehensive survey is presented on SRFs as an effective method in dealing with the problem of fertilizer wastage during irrigation. This review discusses the technology and applications of the latest research findings in this field.

Carboxymethyl cellulose-based materials for infection control and wound healing: A review

The development of ideal wound dressing materials with excellent characteristics is currently a major demand in wound therapy. In recent years, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)-based wound dressing materials have been of immense attraction due to their noble properties, such as: biocompatibility, biodegradability, tissue resembling, low cost and non-toxic. It is used extensively, in a variety of applications in the biomedical and pharmaceutical fields. The hydrophilic nature of CMC, makes it possible to blend and cross-link with other materials, such as: synthetic polymers, natural polymers and inorganic materials and it enables the preparation of innovative wound dressing biomaterials. Hence, this review, focuses on the intrinsic characteristics of CMC-based wound dressing materials, including hydrogels, films, 3D printing, fibres, gauzes and their recent advancements in chronic wound healing.

New Developments in Medical Applications of Hybrid Hydrogels Containing Natural Polymers

New trends in biomedical applications of the hybrid polymeric hydrogels, obtained by combining natural polymers with synthetic ones, have been reviewed. Homopolysaccharides, heteropolysaccharides, as well as polypeptides, proteins and nucleic acids, are presented from the point of view of their ability to form hydrogels with synthetic polymers, the preparation procedures for polymeric organic hybrid hydrogels, general physico-chemical properties and main biomedical applications (i.e., tissue engineering, wound dressing, drug delivery, etc.).

Soy protein hydrolysate grafted cellulose nanofibrils with bioactive signals for bone repair and regeneration

TEMPO oxidized cellulose nanofibers (T-CNF) were prepared from cellulose pulp which is extracted from bagasse. Soy protein hydrolysate (SPH) was grafted on T-CNF via amidation of carboxylic groups. Biomineralization was, then, assessed via calcium phosphates (CaP) precipitation in twice-simulated body fluid until formation of a new bioactive material. Protein was efficiently grafted without alteration of morphology and nanofibrils packing as reported by Fourier Transform infrared analysis /X Ray Diffraction /Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy / Atomic Force Microscopy. Highly crystalline calcium phosphate deposits - ca. 22.1% - were detected, with a Ca/P ratio equal to 1.63, in agreement with native bone apatite composition. In vitro response of human Mesenchymal Stem Cells confirmed the biocompatibility. No significant differences in terms of cell adhesion were recognized while a significant increase in cell proliferation was detected until 7 days. The presence of calcium phosphates tends to cover the nanofibrillar pattern, inducing the inhibition of cell proliferation and promoting the ex-novo precipitation of mineral phases. All the results suggest a promising use of these biomaterials in the repair and/or the regeneration of hard tissues such as bone.

A review of natural polysaccharides for drug delivery applications: Special focus on cellulose, starch and glycogen

Natural polysaccharides are renewable with a high degree of biocompatibility, biodegradability, and ability to mimic the natural extracellular matrix (ECM) microenvironment. Comprehensive investigations of polysaccharides are essential for our fundamental understanding of exploiting its potential as bio-composite, nano-conjugate and in pharmaceutical sectors. Polysaccharides are considered to be superior to other polymers, for its ease in tailoring, bio-compatibility, bio-activity, homogeneity and bio-adhesive properties. The main focus of this review is to spotlight the new advancements and challenges concerned with surface modification, binding domains, biological interaction with the conjugate including stability, polydispersity, and biodegradability. In this review, we have limited our survey to three essential polysaccharides including cellulose, starch, and glycogen that are sourced from plants, microbes, and animals respectively are reviewed. We also present the polysaccharides which have been extensively modified with the various types of conjugates for combating last-ditch pharmaceutical challenges.

Formation of mannitol core microparticles for sustained release with lipid coating in a mini fluid bed system

The goal of this study was to prepare sustained release microparticles for methyl blue and aspartame as sparingly and freely water-soluble model drugs by lipid film coating in a Mini-Glatt fluid bed, and to assess the effect of coating load of two of lipids, hard fat and glyceryl stearate, on the release rates. 30g drug-loaded mannitol carrier microparticles with average diameter of 500 or 300μm were coated with 5g, 10g, 20g and 30g lipids, respectively. The model drugs were completely released in vitro through pores which mainly resulted from dissolution of the polyol core beads. The release of methyl blue from microparticles based on 500μm carrier beads extended up to 25days, while aspartame release from microparticles formed from 300μm carrier beads was extended to 7days. Although glyceryl stearate exhibits higher wettability, burst and release rates were similar for the two lipid materials. Polymorphic transformation of the hart fat was observed upon release. The lipid-coated microparticles produced with 500μm carrier beads showed slightly lower burst release compared to the microparticles produced with 300μm carrier beads as they carried relatively thicker lipid layer based on an equivalent lipid to mannitol ratio. Aspartame microparticles showed a much faster release than methyl blue due to the higher water-solubility of aspartame.

Controlled release of antibiotic amoxicillin drug using carboxymethyl cellulose-cl-poly(lactic acid-co-itaconic acid) hydrogel

In this paper, microwave assisted preparation of carboxymethyl cellulose-cl-poly(lactic acid-co-itaconic acid) (CMC-cl-P(LA-co-IA)) hydrogel was reported via facile graft copolymerization using N,N¹-methylene-bis-acrylamide (MBA) and potassium persulphate as cross linker and initiator. Different reaction parameters were optimized to achieve good yield. The formation of hydrogel was confirmed by characterization techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, thermo gravimetric analysis, transmission electron microscopy etc. The antimicrobial activities of the hydrogel were studied against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. About 95% killing of bacteria was recorded after 24h. The controlled release of amoxicillin drug from hydrogel was evaluated as a function of pH and time. Maximum drug release of 98% was recorded at 2.2 pH after 7h. The kinetic studies showed non-Fickian diffusion of the drug.

Repair of volumetric bone defects with a high strength BMP-loaded-mineralized hydrogel tubular scaffold

A high strength and BMP-2-loaded tubular scaffold was engineered by in situ mineralization of a supramolecular hydrogel. This tubular scaffold could lead to an efficient volumetric bone repair.