Polysaccharides fractionated from enzyme digests of Korean red ginseng water extracts enhance the immunostimulatory activity

Elucidating Korean meadowsweet (Filipendula glaberrima Nakai)-derived arabinogalactan protein-induced macrophage activation and its associated mechanism of action

This study aimed to confirm macrophage-stimulatory component from Korean meadowsweet (Filipendula glaberrima; FG) and characterize its compositional and structural properties. FG-CWH, prepared via cool-water extraction and ethanol precipitation, induced the highest secretion of NO (6.0-8.0 μM), TNF-α (8.7-9.5 ng/mL), and IL-6 (1.0-5.7 ng/mL) compared to other samples at 0.4-10 μg/mL in RAW 264.7 cells. Analytical results revealed that FG-CWH is a high-molecular-weight component with an average molecular weight of 220 kDa, constituting a polysaccharide-protein mixture. Chemical and enzymatic treatment of FG-CWH indicated its primary composition as arabinogalactan protein (AGP)-rich glycoprotein, with activity likely associated with the chemical and structural characteristics of AGP. FG-CWH treatment resulted in significant and concentration-dependent increases in iNOS (20.0-29.6 folds), TNFα (10.6-18.6 folds) and IL6 (10.9-155.6 folds) gene expression, as well as the secretion of NO (5.3-6.3 μM), TNF-α (35.4-44.3 ng/mL), and IL-6 (4.1-8.4 ng/mL) secretion, even at a reduced concentration range of 125-500 ng/mL, compared to the negative control group. Immunoblotting analysis indicated FG-CWH-induced macrophage stimulation significantly associated with the activation of MAPK (ERK, JNK, and p38) and NF-κB (p65 and IκBα). These findings can serve as valuable groundwork for developing FG-derived AGP as novel functional ingredients to enhance human immunity.

Exopolysaccharides of lactic acid bacteria: Structure, biological activity, structure-activity relationship, and application in the food industry: A review

Over the past few decades, researchers have discovered that probiotics play an important role in our daily lives. With the further deepening of research, more and more evidence show that bacterial metabolites have an important role in food and human health, which opens up a new direction for the research of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in the food and pharmaceutical industry. Many LAB have been widely studied because of the ability of exopolysaccharides (EPS). Lactic acid bacteria exopolysaccharides (LAB EPS) not only have great potential in the treatment of human diseases but also can become natural ingredients in the food industry to provide special qualitative structure and flavor. This paper has organized and summarized the biosynthesis, strain selection, production process parameters, structure, and biological activity of LAB EPS, filling in the monotony and incompleteness of previous articles' descriptions of LAB EPS. Therefore, this paper focuses on the general biosynthetic pathway, structural characterization, structure-activity relationship, biological activity of LAB EPS, and their application in the food industry, which will help to deepen people's understanding of LAB EPS and develop new active drugs from LAB EPS. Although the research results are relatively affluent, the low yield, complex structure, and few clinical trials of EPS are still the reasons that hinder its development. Therefore, future knowledge expansion should focus on the regulation of structure, physicochemical properties, function, higher production of EPS, and clinical trial applications, which can further increase the commercial significance and value of EPS. Furthermore, better understanding the structure-function relationship of EPS in food remains a challenge to date.

Characterization and comparison of cardiomyocyte protection activities of non-starch polysaccharides from six ginseng root herbal medicines

Ginseng is rich of polysaccharides, however, the evidence supporting polysaccharides to distinguish various ginseng species is rarely reported. Focusing on six root ginseng (e.g., Panax ginseng-PG, P. quinquefolius-PQ, P. notoginseng-PN, red ginseng-RG, P. japonicus-PJ, and P. japonicus var. major-PJM), the contained non-starch polysaccharides (NPs) were structurally characterized and compared by both the chemical and biological evaluation. Holistic fingerprinting at three levels (the NPs and the acid hydrolysates involving oligosaccharides and monosaccharides) utilized various chromatography methods, and the treatment of H9c2 cells with the NPs by OGD and H2O2-induced injury models was used to assess the protective effect. NPs from six Panax herbal medicines occupied about 20 % of the total polysaccharides, which were of the highest content in RG and the lowest in PN. NPs from six ginseng exhibited weak differentiations in the molecular weight distribution, while marker oligosaccharides were found to distinguish PN and RG from the others. Glc and GalA were more abundant in the NPs for PG and RG, respectively. NPs from PQ (100/200 μg/mL) showed significant cardiomyocyte protection effect by regulating the mitochondrial functions. This work further testifies the role of polysaccharides in quality control of herbal medicine, with new markers discovered beneficial to distinguish the ginseng.

Immunomodulatory mechanisms of an acidic polysaccharide from the fermented burdock residue by Rhizopus nigricans in RAW264.7 cells and cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressive mice

RBAPS is an acidic polysaccharide extracted from the burdock residue fermentation by Rhizopus nigricans. In RBAPS-activated RAW264.7 cells, transcriptome analysis identified a total of 1520 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 1223 down-regulated genes and 297 up-regulated genes. DEGs were enriched in the immune-related biological processes, involving in Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway, according to Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis. The results of the confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) observation, antibody neutralization and Western blot verified that RBAPS modulated macrophages activation and cytokines secretion mainly via TLR4/MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway. The immunomodulatory activity in vivo of RBAPS was investigated in cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppressive mice. RBAPS promoted the counts of white blood cells (WBC), red blood cells (RBC) and platelets (PLT) as well as the levels of immunoglobulins and cytokines (IgG, IgM, TNF-α, and IL-2) in immunosuppressive mice. RBAPS protected the spleen and thymus from CTX-induced injury by increasing the organ indexes, attenuating pathological damage, and promoting splenic lymphocytes proliferation. Importantly, RBAPS ameliorated the intestine integrity and function by promoting the expression of Occuldin, Claudin-5, Atg5, and Atg7, activating TLR4/MAPK signaling pathway in CTX-induced mice. This study suggested that RBAPS was a prime candidate of immunologic adjuvant in chemotherapy for the nutraceutical and pharmaceutical application.

Extraction Optimization, Characterization and Biological Activities of Polysaccharide Extracts from Nymphaea hybrid

In this study, polysaccharide-rich Nymphaea hybrid extracts (NHE) were obtained using the ultrasound-assisted cellulase extraction (UCE) method optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). The structural properties and thermal stability of NHE were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and thermogravimetry-derivative thermogravimetry (TG-DTG) analysis, respectively. Moreover, the bioactivities of NHE, including the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, whitening and scratch healing activities were evaluated by different in vitro assays. NHE conveyed a good ability to scavenge against the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radicals and inhibit the hyaluronidase activity. NHE can effectively protect the HaCaT cells against oxidative damage by inhibiting the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the H₂O₂ stimulation assays and promoting the proliferation and migration in the scratch assays. In addition, NHE was proven to inhibit melanin production in B16 cells. Collectively, the above results seem to be the evidence needed to promote the potential of NHE to be regarded as a new functional raw material in the cosmetics or food industries.

Immuno-stimulatory activity of Astragalus polysaccharides in cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed mice by regulating gut microbiota

Evidence has indicated the immune-stimulatory effect of Astragalus polysaccharides (APS), yet it remains unknown whether the potential mechanism is associated with gut microbiota. In this study, we aimed to investigate the role of gut microbiota in APS-initiated immune-enhancing activity in mice. BALB/c mice were injected with cyclophosphamide to establish a mouse immunosuppression model. We found that APS significantly ameliorated the immunosuppression in mice, indicative of the increased immune organ indices, the promoted proliferation of immune cells, and the up-regulated intestinal inflammation. Western blot analysis demonstrated that APS treatment significantly activated Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways in the intestine. By 16S rDNA sequencing, APS treatment reversed the gut microbiota dysbiosis in immunocompromised mice. At the genus level, APS increased the abundance of bacteria (like Lactobacillus, Bifidobacteria, Roseburia, and Desulfovibrio) and decreased the content of several bacteria (like Oscillibacter, Tyzzerella, and Lachnoclostridium). However, APS had no immune-enhancing effect on immunocompromised mice with gut microbiota depletion. In conclusion, APS can enhance immune responses in immunocompromised mice by modulating gut microbiota dysbiosis.

Research Progress on Extraction, Isolation, Structural Analysis and Biological Activity of Polysaccharides from Panax Genus

The panax genus is a widely used medicinal plant with good biological activity. As one of the main active components of the Panax genus, polysaccharides have various pharmacological effects. This review summarizes the latest research reports on ginseng, American ginseng, and Panax notoginseng polysaccharides and compares the differences in extraction, isolation and purification, structural characteristics, and biological activities. The current research mainly focuses on ginseng polysaccharides, and the process of extraction, isolation, and structure analysis of each polysaccharide is roughly the same. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that these polysaccharides have antioxidants, antitumor, immunomodulatory, antidiabetic, intestinal protection, skin repair, and other biological activities. This review provides new insights into the differences between the three kinds of ginseng polysaccharides which will help to further study the medicinal value of ginseng in traditional Chinese medicine.

Red Ginseng Extract and γ-Aminobutyric Acid Synergistically Enhance Immunity Against Cancer Cells and Antitumor Metastasis Activity in Mice

The effects of combined administration of red ginseng (RG) extracts and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on immunostimulatory activity and tumor metastasis inhibition were investigated in mice. For the immunostimulatory activity, splenocyte proliferation, natural killer (NK) cell activity, including the production of granzyme B (GrB) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ), and serum level of cytokine such as IFN-γ, interleukin (IL)-17, and IL-21 were assessed. Peyer's patch cells obtained from mice administered with RG+GABA were cultured, and the cytokine level in the culture supernatant and bone marrow (BM) cell proliferation activity were examined. The proliferative activity of splenocytes was significantly higher in the RG-GABA treatment group than in RG or GABA alone (P < .05). In the experimental tumor metastasis model, oral administration of RG+GABA showed a higher antitumor metastatic effect compared to that of RG or GABA alone. Oral administration of RG+GABA significantly augmented NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity against YAC-1 tumor cells. In addition, the production of GrB and IFN-γ was stimulated in the culture supernatant of NK cells and YAC-1 cells. Serum concentrations of IFN-γ, IL-17, and IL-21 in mice with RG+GABA were significantly higher compared to the corresponding blood levels in mice administered with RG or GABA alone. The RG+GABA group showed significant BM cell proliferation and increased production of IL-6 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor compared to that in the monotherapy groups. Therefore, RG may have a synergistic effect with GABA for enhancing the host defense system such as BM proliferation and NK cell activity in a tumor metastasis model.

Effect of steam-processing of the Panax ginseng root on its inducible activity on granulocyte-colony stimulating factor secretion in intestinal epithelial cells in vitro

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax ginseng root has been used as tonic in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and traditional Japanese Kampo medicine. Steam processing of Panax ginseng root is carried out to enhance its nourishing effects on qi.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In order to explore the mechanism of these beneficial effects behind the steam processing of the P. ginseng root, we evaluated effectiveness of processing on the granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) secretion in intestinal epithelial cell-like MCE301 cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We collected P. ginseng root samples in the markets of China and Japan. Fresh or dried samples were steamed for different time lengths and subsequently dried and extracted. MCE301 cells were incubated with the medium containing various P. ginseng root extracts, while the concentration of G-CSF in the medium was measured. We also investigated the active ingredients by size exclusion HPLC.

RESULTS

The extracts of fresh P. ginseng hairy root samples steamed for more than 6 h significantly induced G-CSF secretion, and the maximum activity was recorded at a 9-h steaming. The same activity was noted when already dried P. ginseng hairy root samples were steamed. The extracts of fresh P. ginseng hairy root without steam processing and those of fresh P. ginseng root body samples with steam processing exhibited no activities. The active ingredients of steamed P. ginseng hairy root samples were high-molecular-weight compounds with an average molecular weight of 758 kDa, and the activity was mediated by the toll-like receptor (TLR) 9.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results shed on more light on the mechanism underlying the appearance of immunostimulatory activity of the P. ginseng hairy root induced by steam processing.

Polysaccharides from the leaves of Polygonatum sibiricum Red. regulate the gut microbiota and affect the production of short-chain fatty acids in mice

Polysaccharides from the rhizome of Polygonatum sibiricum display a variety of biological activities, including the regulation of intestinal microbiota, but the polysaccharides from the leaves of P. sibiricum have not been studied extensively. Here, we extracted crude polysaccharides from the leaves of P. sibiricum and further separated and purified them to study the effects of P. sibiricum polysaccharides (PsPs) on intestinal microbes and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). The PsPs had a total sugar content of 97.48% and a monosaccharide composition comprising mannose, rhamnose, galacturonic acid, glucose, xylose, and arabinose, with molar ratios of 6.6:15.4:4.5:8.8:40.7:24, respectively. The effects of PsPs on intestinal microflora in mice were also studied, with 16S sequencing results showing an increase in the relative abundance of Firmicutes and a decrease in Bacteroidetes at the phylum level. The abundance of Lactobacillus increased, while those of Lachnospiraceae and Bacteroides reduced (at the genus level) by PsPs treatment. The composition of microbes changed. Levels of SCFAs in the PsPs group were significantly increased compared with control mice, including acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid. These results suggest that PsPs can act as prebiotics, regulating the intestinal tract probiotics.

Exopolysaccharides synthesized by lactic acid bacteria: biosynthesis pathway, structure-function relationship, structural modification and applicability

Probiotics and their fermentation products are increasingly been focused on due to their health-boosting effects. Exopolysaccharides (EPS) synthetized by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are widely applied as texture modifiers in dairy, meat and bakery products owning to their improved properties. Moreover, LAB-derived EPS have been confirmed to possess diverse physiological bioactivities including antioxidant, anti-biofilm, antiviral, immune-regulatory or antitumor. However, the low production and high acquisition cost hinder their development. Even though LAB-derived EPS have been extensively studied for their production-improving, there are only few reports on the systematic elucidation and summary of the relationship among biosynthesis pathway, strain selection, production parameter, structure-function relationship. Therefore, a detailed summary on biosynthesis pathway, production parameter and structure-function relationship of LAB-derived EPS is provided in this review, the structural modifications together with the current and potential applications are also discussed in this paper.

A review of the immunomodulatory activities of polysaccharides isolated from Panax species

Panax polysaccharides are biopolymers that are isolated and purified from the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits of Panax L. plants, which have attracted considerable attention because of their immunomodulatory activities. In this paper, the composition and structural characteristics of purified polysaccharides are reviewed. Moreover, the immunomodulatory activities of polysaccharides are described both in vivo and in vitro. In vitro, Panax polysaccharides exert immunomodulatory functions mainly by activating macrophages, dendritic cells, and the complement system. In vivo, Panax polysaccharides can increase the immune organ indices and stimulate lymphocytes. In addition, this paper also discusses the membrane receptors and various signalling pathways of immune cells. Panax polysaccharides have many beneficial therapeutic effects, including enhancing or activating the immune response, and may be helpful in treating cancer, sepsis, osteoporosis, and other conditions. Panax polysaccharides have the potential for use in the development of novel therapeutic agents or adjuvants with beneficial immunomodulatory properties.

Structure characteristics and immunomodulatory activities of a polysaccharide RGRP-1b from radix ginseng Rubra

The present study was undertaken to explore the structure characteristics, immune regulation, and anti-cancer abilities of polysaccharides in radix ginseng Rubra (RGR). For this purpose, RGR polysaccharides (RGRP) were purified through DEAE and S-300 chromatography. Monosaccharide composition, methylation, and GC-MS analyses, as well as field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), atomic force microscope (AFM), Fourier-transformed infrared resonance (FT-IR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra, were used to establish the structure of RGRP-1b. Our results revealed that RGRP-1a and RGRP-1b possess different molecular weights (21.3 kDa and 10.2 kDa, respectively). RGRP-1a was found to be composed of glucose, while RGRP-1b was composed of glucose, galactose, and arabinose. The main chain structure of RGRP-1b was composed of 1,4-α-Glcp, with a 1,4,6-α-Glcp branch unit. Its side chains were branched at the O-4 position of 1,4,6-α-Glcp, namely 1)-β-Galp-(4 → 1)-α-Araf-(5 → α-Araf and 1)-β-Galp-(6 → α-Glcp. The changes in the nitric oxide (NO) levels and cytotoxicity revealed that macrophages probably get activated by RGRP-1b. The expressions of IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-α were found to be upregulated after treatment with RGRP-1b. RGRP-1b thus possesses the potential to arrest the growth of Huh7 through immunoregulation. Our cumulative findings indicate that RGRP-1b obtained from radix ginseng Rubra can function as a strong immune modulator.

Comparisons of Isolation Methods, Structural Features, and Bioactivities of the Polysaccharides from Three Common Panax Species: A Review of Recent Progress

Panax spp. (Araliaceae family) are widely used medicinal plants and they mainly include Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Panax quinquefolium L. (American ginseng), and Panax notoginseng (notoginseng). Polysaccharides are the main active ingredients in these plants and have demonstrated diverse pharmacological functions, but comparisons of isolation methods, structural features, and bioactivities of these polysaccharides have not yet been reported. This review summarizes recent advances associated with 112 polysaccharides from ginseng, 25 polysaccharides from American ginseng, and 36 polysaccharides from notoginseng and it compares the differences in extraction, purification, structural features, and bioactivities. Most studies focus on ginseng polysaccharides and comparisons are typically made with the polysaccharides from American ginseng and notoginseng. For the extraction, purification, and structural analysis, the processes are similar for the polysaccharides from the three Panax species. Previous studies determined that 55 polysaccharides from ginseng, 18 polysaccharides from American ginseng, and 9 polysaccharides from notoginseng exhibited anti-tumor activity, immunoregulatory effects, anti-oxidant activity, and other pharmacological functions, which are mediated by multiple signaling pathways, including mitogen-activated protein kinase, nuclear factor kappa B, or redox balance pathways. This review can provide new insights into the similarities and differences among the polysaccharides from the three Panax species, which can facilitate and guide further studies to explore the medicinal properties of the Araliaceae family used in traditional Chinese medicine.

Strategies to Increase the Biological and Biotechnological Value of Polysaccharides from Agricultural Waste for Application in Healthy Nutrition

Nowadays, there is a growing interest in the extraction and identification of new high added-value compounds from the agro-food industry that will valorize the great amount of by-products generated. Many of these bioactive compounds have shown beneficial effects for humans in terms of disease prevention, but they are also of great interest in the food industry due to their effect of extending the shelf life of foods by their well-known antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. For this reason, an additional research objective is to establish the best conditions for obtaining these compounds from complex by-product structures without altering their activity or even increasing it. This review highlights recent work on the identification and characterization of bioactive compounds from vegetable by-products, their functional activity, new methodologies for the extraction of bioactive compounds from vegetables, possibly increasing their biological activity, and the future of the global functional food and nutraceuticals market.

Recent progress in polysaccharides from Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer

Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (P. ginseng) has a long history of medicinal use and can treat a variety of diseases. P. ginseng contains a variety of active ingredients, such as saponins, polypeptides, volatile oils, and polysaccharides. Among them, saponins have always been considered as the main components responsible for its pharmacological activities. However, more and more studies have shown that polysaccharides play an indispensable role in the medicinal value of ginseng. Modern biological and medical studies have found that ginseng polysaccharides have complex structural characteristics and diverse biological activities, such as immune regulation, anti-tumor, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, and anti-radiation functions, among others. Additionally, the structural characteristics of ginseng polysaccharides are closely related to their activity. In this review, the research background, extraction, purification, structural characteristics, and biological activities of ginseng polysaccharides from different parts of P. ginseng (roots, flowers stems and leaves, and berries) under different growth conditions (artificially cultivated ginseng, mountain ginseng, and wild ginseng) are summarized. The structural characteristics of purified polysaccharides were reviewed. Meanwhile, their biological activities were introduced, and some possible mechanisms were listed. Furthermore, the structure-activity relationship of polysaccharides was discussed. Some research perspectives for the study of ginseng polysaccharides were also provided.

Wild simulated ginseng activates mouse macrophage, RAW264.7 cells through TRL2/4-dependent activation of MAPK, NF-κB and PI3K/AKT pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is a very well-known traditional herbal medicine that has long been used to enhance the body's immunity. Because it is a type of ginseng, it is believed that wild simulated ginseng (WSG) also has immune-enhancing activity. However, study on the immune-enhancing activity of WSG is quite insufficient compared to ginseng.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, we evaluated immune-enhancing activity of WSG through macrophage activation to provide a scientific basis for the immune enhancing activity of WSG.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of WSG on viability of RAW264.7 cells was evaluated by MTT assay. The NO level was measured by Griess reagent. The expression levels of mRNA or protein in WSG-treated RAW264.7 cells were analyzed by RT-PCR and Western blot, respectively.

RESULTS

WSG increased the production of immunomodulators such as NO, iNOS, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α and activated phagocytosis in mouse macrophages RAW264.7 cells. Inhibition of TLR2 and TLR4 reduced the production of immunomodulators induced by WSG. WSG activated MAPK, NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways, and inhibition of such signaling activation blocked WSG-mediated production of immunomodulators. In addition, activation of MAPK, NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways by WSG was reversed by TLR2 or TLR4 inhibition.

CONCLUSION

Based on the results of this study, WSG is thought to activate macrophages through the production of immunomodulators and phagocytosis activation through TLR2/4-dependent MAPK, NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways. Therefore, it is thought that WSG have the potential to be used as an agent for enhancing immunity.

Traditional uses, chemical diversity and biological activities of Panax L. (Araliaceae): A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax L. (Araliaceae) is globally-recognized plant resource suitable for the globalization of traditional Chinese medicines. It has traditionally been used as tonic agents in various ethnomedicinal systems of East Asia, especially in China. It is often used to regulate bodily functions and considered as adjuvant therapy for tumor, resuscitation of traumatic hemorrhagic shock, etc. AIM OF THIS REVIEW: This review systematically summarized the information on distributions, botanical characteristics, traditional uses, chemical components and biological activities of the genus Panax, in order to explore and exploit the therapeutic potential of this plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The available information about genus Panax was collected via the online search on Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, Baidu Scholar, Science Direct, China National Knowledge Infrastructure and Springer search. The keywords used include Panax, saponin, secondary metabolites, chemical components, biological activity, pharmacology, traditional medicinal uses, safety and other related words. The Plant List (www.theplantlist.org) and Catalogue of Life: 2019 Annual Checklist (www.catalogueoflife.org/col/) databases were used to provide the scientific names, subspecies classification and distribution information of Panax.

RESULTS

Panax is widely assessed concerning its phytochemistry and biological activities. To date, at least 748 chemical compounds from genus Panax were isolated, including saponins, flavonoids, polysaccharides, steroids and phenols. Among them, triterpenoid saponins and polysaccharides were the representative active ingredients of Panax plants, which have been widely investigated. Modern pharmacological studies showed that these compounds exhibited a wide range of biological activities in vitro and in vivo including antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory, hepatorenal protective, neuroprotective, immunoregulatory, cardioprotective and antidiabetic activities. Many studies also confirmed that the mechanisms of organ-protective were closely related to molecular signaling pathways, the expression of related proteins and antioxidant reactions. To sum up, genus Panax has high medicinal and social value, deserving further investigation.

CONCLUSIONS

The genus Panax is very promising to be fully utilized in the development of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. However, there is a lack of in-depth studies on ethnomedicinal uses of Panax plants. In addition, further studies of single chemical component should be performed based on the diversity of chemical structure, significant biological activities and clinical application. If the bioactive molecules and multicomponent interactions are discovered, it will be of great significance to the clinical application of Panax plants. It is an urgent requirement to carry out detailed phytochemical, pharmacology and clinical research on Panax classical prescriptions for the establishment of modern medication guidelines. Exploring the molecular basis of herbal synergistic actions may provide a new understanding of the complex disease mechanisms and accelerate the process of pharmaceutical development.

Enhanced Intestinal Immune Response in Mice after Oral Administration of Korea Red Ginseng-Derived Polysaccharide

(1) Background: The immunostimulatory role of the polysaccharide fraction (KRG-P) of Korea red ginseng (KRG) was studied in cells. However, its immunomodulatory activity is unknown. Therefore, we investigated the chemical properties of KRG-P and its intestinal immune responses in vitro and in vivo. (2) Methods: KRG-P monosaccharide composition and molecular weight were determined using high-performance liquid and size-exclusion chromatography systems. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) and α-defensin-1 transcript levels were measured using a SYBR Green qRT-PCR; defensin-1, Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and IgA protein levels were determined using Western blotting and ELISA kits. (3) Results: The molecular weight of KRG-P was estimated to be 106 kDa, and it contained neutral sugar (74.3%), uronic acid (24.6%), and proteins (1%). In vitro studies of intestinal immunomodulatory activity of KRG-P indicated that GM-CSF and IgA levels increased in Peyer’s patch cells to higher levels than those obtained with KRG and induced bone marrow cell proliferation. In in vivo study, oral KRG-P administration to mice upregulated the expression of α-defensin-1 and IgA in the small intestinal tissue and that of secreted IgA in the feces. (4) Conclusions: KRG-P contributed to the modulation of intestinal immunity and maintenance of intestinal homeostasis against intestinal infection.

Physiological and pharmacological features of the non-saponin components in Korean Red Ginseng

Panax ginseng, a medicinal plant, has been used as a blood-nourishing tonic for thousands of years in Asia, including Korea and China. P. ginseng exhibits adaptogen activity that maintains homeostasis by restoring general biological functions and non-specifically enhancing the body's resistance to external stress. Several P. ginseng effects have been reported. Korean Red Ginseng, in particular, has been reported in both basic and clinical studies to possess diverse effects such as enhanced immunity, fatigue relief, memory, blood circulation, and anti-oxidation. Moreover, it also protects against menopausal symptoms, cancer, cardiac diseases, and neurological disorders. The active components found in most Korean Red Ginseng varieties are known to include ginsenosides, polysaccharides, peptides, alkaloids, polyacetylene, and phenolic compounds. In this review, the identity and bioactivity of the non-saponin components of Korean Red Ginseng discovered to date are evaluated and the components are classified into polysaccharide and nitrogen compounds (protein, peptide, amino acid, nucleic acid, and alkaloid), as well as fat-soluble components such as polyacetylene, phenols, essential oils, and phytosterols. The distinct bioactivity of Korean Red Ginseng was found to originate from both saponin and non-saponin components rather than from only one or two specific components. Therefore, it is important to consider saponin and non-saponin elements together.

Red ginseng protects against cisplatin-induced intestinal toxicity by inhibiting apoptosis and autophagy via the PI3K/AKT and MAPK signaling pathways

Although growing evidence has shown that ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer.) exerts strong protective and preventive effects on cisplatin-induced side effects, including nephrotoxicity, ototoxicity and cardiotoxicity, the ameliorative effects of ginseng on intestinal damage caused by cisplatin are unknown to date. Red ginseng (RG), a major processed product of the roots of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, can be used to control chemotherapy drug-induced multiple toxicity. In the present work, an animal model of cisplatin-induced intestinal injury was established to evaluate the ameliorative effects of RG and their underlying molecular mechanism for the first time. The results showed that a single cisplatin injection (20 mg kg^-1) leads to loss of body weight, shrinkage of the small intestine, and sharp increase of the intestinal function index of diamine oxidase (DAO). These symptoms were remarkably relieved after the administration of RG at 300 and 600 mg kg^-1 for 10 continuous days, respectively. In addition, RG markedly reduced the increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and the consumption of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) caused by cisplatin-induced oxidative stress. Furthermore, RG pretreatment dramatically improved the cisplatin-induced apoptosis of intestinal villous cells, irregular nuclear arrangement, ablation of crypt cells, and damage to the mechanical barrier. In this study, pharmacological methods have been used to prove that RG can inhibit cisplatin intestinal toxicity by activating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway to inhibit apoptosis and by antagonizing the MAPK-mediated autophagy pathway.

Beneficial effects on skin health using polysaccharides from red ginseng by-product

Red Ginseng is well-known functional food in Asia which is produced by steaming and drying fresh ginseng (Panax ginseng). In the production of red ginseng extract, around 65% of the original material is left over as by-product and discarded. Most studies on ginseng are focused on ginsenosides. Many functional substances other than ginsenoside are found in red ginseng, but they have not been studied and are usually discarded. Acidic polysaccharides, which are functional polysaccharides found in the by-product of red ginseng, can be utilized as excellent high-value-added material. In this study, we developed red ginseng by-product polysaccharides (RGBPs) by applying an enzyme-linked high-pressure process (ELHPP). We have demonstrated the antioxidant, anti-aging, and anti-atopic dermatitis efficacy of ELHPP-RGBPs in this study. In acute oral toxicity and skin irritation tests, ELHPP-RGBPs were found to be very low in toxicity. ELHPP-RGBPs inhibited solar ultraviolet-induced matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) protein through activator protein-1 (AP-1), a major transcription factor for MMP-1. ELHPP-RGBP attenuated DFE-induced AD-like symptoms as assessed by skin lesion analyses, dermatitis score, and skin thickness. Taken together, these results suggest that ELHPP-RGBP may have potential as a nutraceutical ingredient for skin health. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This paper presents a new method of using ginseng by-product that has not been used and discarded. The use of polysaccharides in ginseng by-product has been shown to prevent skin wrinkles and atopic dermatitis. This is an economical new functional food material.