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Viola G, Floriani F, Barracchia CG, Munari F, D'Onofrio M, Assfalg M. Ultrasmall Gold Nanoparticles as Clients of Biomolecular Condensates. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202301274. [PMID: 37293933 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202301274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) of biopolymers to form condensates is a widespread phenomenon in living cells. Agents that target or alter condensation can help uncover elusive physiological and pathological mechanisms. Owing to their unique material properties and modes of interaction with biomolecules, nanoparticles represent attractive condensate-targeting agents. Our work focused on elucidating the interaction between ultrasmall gold nanoparticles (usGNPs) and diverse types of condensates of tau, a representative phase-separating protein associated with neurodegenerative disorders. usGNPs attract considerable interest in the biomedical community due to unique features, including emergent optical properties and good cell penetration. We explored the interaction of usGNPs with reconstituted self-condensates of tau, two-component tau/polyanion and three-component tau/RNA/alpha-synuclein coacervates. The usGNPs were found to concentrate into condensed liquid droplets, consistent with the formation of dynamic client (nanoparticle) - scaffold (tau) interactions, and were observable thanks to their intrinsic luminescence. Furthermore, usGNPs were capable to promote LLPS of a protein domain which is unable to phase separate on its own. Our study demonstrates the ability of usGNPs to interact with and illuminate protein condensates. We anticipate that nanoparticles will have broad applicability as nanotracers to interrogate phase separation, and as nanoactuators controlling the formation and dissolution of condensates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Viola
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134, Verona, Italy
| | - Fulvio Floriani
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134, Verona, Italy
| | | | - Francesca Munari
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134, Verona, Italy
| | | | - Michael Assfalg
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134, Verona, Italy
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2
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Bashiri G, Padilla MS, Swingle KL, Shepherd SJ, Mitchell MJ, Wang K. Nanoparticle protein corona: from structure and function to therapeutic targeting. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:1432-1466. [PMID: 36655824 PMCID: PMC10013352 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00799a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Nanoparticle (NP)-based therapeutics have ushered in a new era in translational medicine. However, despite the clinical success of NP technology, it is not well-understood how NPs fundamentally change in biological environments. When introduced into physiological fluids, NPs are coated by proteins, forming a protein corona (PC). The PC has the potential to endow NPs with a new identity and alter their bioactivity, stability, and destination. Additionally, the conformation of proteins is sensitive to their physical and chemical surroundings. Therefore, biological factors and protein-NP-interactions can induce changes in the conformation and orientation of proteins in vivo. Since the function of a protein is closely connected to its folded structure, slight differences in the surrounding environment as well as the surface characteristics of the NP materials may cause proteins to lose or gain a function. As a result, this can alter the downstream functionality of the NPs. This review introduces the main biological factors affecting the conformation of proteins associated with the PC. Then, four types of NPs with extensive utility in biomedical applications are described in greater detail, focusing on the conformation and orientation of adsorbed proteins. This is followed by a discussion on the instances in which the conformation of adsorbed proteins can be leveraged for therapeutic purposes, such as controlling protein conformation in assembled matrices in tissue, as well as controlling the PC conformation for modulating immune responses. The review concludes with a perspective on the remaining challenges and unexplored areas at the interface of PC and NP research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghazal Bashiri
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA.
| | - Marshall S Padilla
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Kelsey L Swingle
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Sarah J Shepherd
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Michael J Mitchell
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Abramson Cancer Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Cardiovascular Institute, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Karin Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA.
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Viola G, Barracchia CG, Tira R, Parolini F, Leo G, Bellanda M, Munari F, Capaldi S, D’Onofrio M, Assfalg M. New Paradigm for Nano-Bio Interactions: Multimolecular Assembly of a Prototypical Disordered Protein with Ultrasmall Nanoparticles. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:8875-8882. [PMID: 36346924 PMCID: PMC9706667 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c02902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the interactions between nanoparticles (NPs) and proteins is crucial for the successful application of NPs in biological contexts. Protein adsorption is dependent on particle size, and protein binding to ultrasmall (1-3 nm) NPs is considered to be generally weak. However, most studies have involved structured biomacromolecules, while the interactions of ultrasmall NPs with intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have remained elusive. IDPs are abundant in eukaryotes and found to associate with NPs intracellularly. As a model system, we focused on ultrasmall gold nanoparticles (usGNPs) and tau, a cytosolic IDP associated with Alzheimer's disease. Using site-resolved NMR, steady-state fluorescence, calorimetry, and circular dichroism, we reveal that tau and usGNPs form stable multimolecular assemblies, representing a new type of nano-bio interaction. Specifically, the observed interaction hot spots explain the influence of usGNPs on tau conformational transitions, with implications for the intracellular targeting of aberrant IDP aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Viola
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy
| | | | - Roberto Tira
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy
| | | | - Giulia Leo
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy
| | - Massimo Bellanda
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Francesca Munari
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy
| | - Stefano Capaldi
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy
| | | | - Michael Assfalg
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy
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4
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Jameson G, Xiang X, Brüschweiler R. Quantitative Multistate Binding Model of Silica Nanoparticle-Protein Interactions Obtained from Multinuclear Spin Relaxation. J Phys Chem B 2022; 126:9089-9094. [PMID: 36316009 PMCID: PMC9661470 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.2c05967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Nanoparticle-assisted NMR spin relaxation (NASR), which makes internal protein dynamics in solution directly observable on nanosecond to microsecond time scales, has been applied to different nuclei and relaxation processes of the same protein system. A model is presented describing the transient interaction between ubiquitin and anionic silica nanoparticles for the unified interpretation of a wealth of experimental data including 2H, 13C, and 15N relaxation of methyl side chain and backbone moieties. The best model, implemented using a stochastic Liouville equation, describes the exchange process via an intermediary encounter state between free and fully nanoparticle-bound protein. The implication of the three-state binding model on the interpretation of NASR data is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Jameson
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio43210, United States
| | - Xinyao Xiang
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio43210, United States
| | - Rafael Brüschweiler
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio43210, United States,Department
of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio43210, United States,
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Padilla-Godínez FJ, Ruiz-Ortega LI, Guerra-Crespo M. Nanomedicine in the Face of Parkinson's Disease: From Drug Delivery Systems to Nanozymes. Cells 2022; 11:3445. [PMID: 36359841 PMCID: PMC9657131 DOI: 10.3390/cells11213445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The complexity and overall burden of Parkinson's disease (PD) require new pharmacological approaches to counteract the symptomatology while reducing the progressive neurodegeneration of affected dopaminergic neurons. Since the pathophysiological signature of PD is characterized by the loss of physiological levels of dopamine (DA) and the misfolding and aggregation of the alpha-synuclein (α-syn) protein, new proposals seek to restore the lost DA and inhibit the progressive damage derived from pathological α-syn and its impact in terms of oxidative stress. In this line, nanomedicine (the medical application of nanotechnology) has achieved significant advances in the development of nanocarriers capable of transporting and delivering basal state DA in a controlled manner in the tissues of interest, as well as highly selective catalytic nanostructures with enzyme-like properties for the elimination of reactive oxygen species (responsible for oxidative stress) and the proteolysis of misfolded proteins. Although some of these proposals remain in their early stages, the deepening of our knowledge concerning the pathological processes of PD and the advances in nanomedicine could endow for the development of potential treatments for this still incurable condition. Therefore, in this paper, we offer: (i) a brief summary of the most recent findings concerning the physiology of motor regulation and (ii) the molecular neuropathological processes associated with PD, together with (iii) a recapitulation of the current progress in controlled DA release by nanocarriers and (iv) the design of nanozymes, catalytic nanostructures with oxidoreductase-, chaperon, and protease-like properties. Finally, we conclude by describing the prospects and knowledge gaps to overcome and consider as research into nanotherapies for PD continues, especially when clinical translations take place.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J. Padilla-Godínez
- Neurosciences Division, Cell Physiology Institute, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Coyoacan, Mexico City 04510, Mexico
- Regenerative Medicine Laboratory, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Coyoacan, Mexico City 04510, Mexico
| | - Leonardo I. Ruiz-Ortega
- Institute for Physical Sciences, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Cuernavaca 62210, Mexico
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Magdalena Guerra-Crespo
- Neurosciences Division, Cell Physiology Institute, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Coyoacan, Mexico City 04510, Mexico
- Regenerative Medicine Laboratory, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Coyoacan, Mexico City 04510, Mexico
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Barracchia C, Parolini F, Volpe A, Gori D, Munari F, Capaldi S, D’Onofrio M, Assfalg M. Camouflaged Fluorescent Silica Nanoparticles Target Aggregates and Condensates of the Amyloidogenic Protein Tau. Bioconjug Chem 2022; 33:1261-1268. [PMID: 35686491 PMCID: PMC9305972 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.2c00168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) are increasingly found to be associated with irreversible neurodegenerative disorders. The protein tau is a prototypical IDP whose abnormal aggregation into insoluble filaments is a major hallmark of Alzheimer's disease. The view has emerged that aggregation may proceed via alternative pathways involving oligomeric intermediates or phase-separated liquid droplets. Nanoparticles (NPs) offer significant potential for probing the mechanisms of protein fibrillation and may be capable of redirecting conformational transitions. Here, we camouflaged dye-doped silica NPs through functionalization with tau molecules to impart them the ability to associate with protein assemblies such as aggregates or condensates. The prepared NP-tau conjugates showed little influence on the aggregation kinetics and morphology of filamentous aggregates of tau but were found to associate with the filaments. Moreover, NP-tau conjugates were recruited and concentrated into polyanion-induced condensates of tau, driven by multivalent electrostatic interactions, thereby illuminating liquid droplets and their time-dependent transformation, as observed by fluorescence microscopy. NP-tau conjugates were capable of entering human neuroglioma cells and were not cytotoxic. Hence, we propose that NP-tau conjugates could serve as nanotracers for in vitro and in-cell studies to target and visualize tau assemblies and condensates, contributing to an explanation for the molecular mechanisms of abnormal protein aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Francesca Munari
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy
| | - Stefano Capaldi
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy
| | | | - Michael Assfalg
- Department
of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy
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Singh A, Maharana SK, Shukla R, Kesharwani P. Nanotherapeutics approaches for targeting alpha synuclien protein in the management of Parkinson disease. Process Biochem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2021.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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NMR unveils an N-terminal interaction interface on acetylated-α-synuclein monomers for recruitment to fibrils. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2017452118. [PMID: 33903234 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2017452118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyloid fibril formation of α-synuclein (αS) is associated with multiple neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD). Growing evidence suggests that progression of PD is linked to cell-to-cell propagation of αS fibrils, which leads to seeding of endogenous intrinsically disordered monomer via templated elongation and secondary nucleation. A molecular understanding of the seeding mechanism and driving interactions is crucial to inhibit progression of amyloid formation. Here, using relaxation-based solution NMR experiments designed to probe large complexes, we probe weak interactions of intrinsically disordered acetylated-αS (Ac-αS) monomers with seeding-competent Ac-αS fibrils and seeding-incompetent off-pathway oligomers to identify Ac-αS monomer residues at the binding interface. Under conditions that favor fibril elongation, we determine that the first 11 N-terminal residues on the monomer form a common binding site for both fibrils and off-pathway oligomers. Additionally, the presence of off-pathway oligomers within a fibril seeding environment suppresses seeded amyloid formation, as observed through thioflavin-T fluorescence experiments. This highlights that off-pathway αS oligomers can act as an auto-inhibitor against αS fibril elongation. Based on these data taken together with previous results, we propose a model in which Ac-αS monomer recruitment to the fibril is driven by interactions between the intrinsically disordered monomer N terminus and the intrinsically disordered flanking regions (IDR) on the fibril surface. We suggest that this monomer recruitment may play a role in the elongation of amyloid fibrils and highlight the potential of the IDRs of the fibril as important therapeutic targets against seeded amyloid formation.
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Calderón-Garcidueñas L, González-Maciel A, Reynoso-Robles R, Hammond J, Kulesza R, Lachmann I, Torres-Jardón R, Mukherjee PS, Maher BA. Quadruple abnormal protein aggregates in brainstem pathology and exogenous metal-rich magnetic nanoparticles (and engineered Ti-rich nanorods). The substantia nigrae is a very early target in young urbanites and the gastrointestinal tract a key brainstem portal. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 191:110139. [PMID: 32888951 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5) exposures are linked with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases (AD,PD). AD and PD neuropathological hallmarks are documented in children and young adults exposed lifelong to Metropolitan Mexico City air pollution; together with high frontal metal concentrations (especially iron)-rich nanoparticles (NP), matching air pollution combustion- and friction-derived particles. Here, we identify aberrant hyperphosphorylated tau, ɑ synuclein and TDP-43 in the brainstem of 186 Mexico City 27.29 ± 11.8y old residents. Critically, substantia nigrae (SN) pathology seen in mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and neuromelanin (NM) is co-associated with the abundant presence of exogenous, Fe-, Al- and Ti-rich NPs.The SN exhibits early and progressive neurovascular unit damage and mitochondria and NM are associated with metal-rich NPs including exogenous engineered Ti-rich nanorods, also identified in neuroenteric neurons. Such reactive, cytotoxic and magnetic NPs may act as catalysts for reactive oxygen species formation, altered cell signaling, and protein misfolding, aggregation and fibril formation. Hence, pervasive, airborne and environmental, metal-rich and magnetic nanoparticles may be a common denominator for quadruple misfolded protein neurodegenerative pathologies affecting urbanites from earliest childhood. The substantia nigrae is a very early target and the gastrointestinal tract (and the neuroenteric system) key brainstem portals. The ultimate neural damage and neuropathology (Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and TDP-43 pathology included) could depend on NP characteristics and the differential access and targets achieved via their portals of entry. Thus where you live, what air pollutants you are exposed to, what you are inhaling and swallowing from the air you breathe,what you eat, how you travel, and your occupational longlife history are key. Control of NP sources becomes critical.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jessica Hammond
- Centre for Environmental Magnetism and Paleomagnetism, Lancaster Environment Centre, University of Lancaster, Lancaster, LA1 4YQ, UK
| | - Randy Kulesza
- Auditory Research Center, Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, Erie, PA, USA
| | | | - Ricardo Torres-Jardón
- Centro de Ciencias de la Atmósfera, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico
| | | | - Barbara A Maher
- Centre for Environmental Magnetism and Paleomagnetism, Lancaster Environment Centre, University of Lancaster, Lancaster, LA1 4YQ, UK
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D’Onofrio M, Munari F, Assfalg M. Alpha-Synuclein-Nanoparticle Interactions: Understanding, Controlling and Exploiting Conformational Plasticity. Molecules 2020; 25:E5625. [PMID: 33260436 PMCID: PMC7731430 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25235625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Alpha-synuclein (αS) is an extensively studied protein due to its involvement in a group of neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease, and its documented ability to undergo aberrant self-aggregation resulting in the formation of amyloid-like fibrils. In dilute solution, the protein is intrinsically disordered but can adopt multiple alternative conformations under given conditions, such as upon adsorption to nanoscale surfaces. The study of αS-nanoparticle interactions allows us to better understand the behavior of the protein and provides the basis for developing systems capable of mitigating the formation of toxic aggregates as well as for designing hybrid nanomaterials with novel functionalities for applications in various research areas. In this review, we summarize current progress on αS-nanoparticle interactions with an emphasis on the conformational plasticity of the biomolecule.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michael Assfalg
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy; (M.D.); (F.M.)
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11
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Barracchia CG, Tira R, Parolini F, Munari F, Bubacco L, Spyroulias GA, D’Onofrio M, Assfalg M. Unsaturated Fatty Acid-Induced Conformational Transitions and Aggregation of the Repeat Domain of Tau. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25112716. [PMID: 32545360 PMCID: PMC7321374 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25112716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Revised: 06/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The intrinsically disordered, amyloidogenic protein Tau associates with diverse classes of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. Mounting evidence suggests that fatty acid molecules could play a role in the dysfunction of this protein, however, their interaction with Tau remains poorly characterized. Methods: In a bid to elucidate the association of Tau with unsaturated fatty acids at the sub-molecular level, we carried out a variety of solution NMR experiments in combination with circular dichroism and fluorescence measurements. Our study shows that Tau4RD, the highly basic four-repeat domain of Tau, associates strongly with arachidonic and oleic acid assemblies in a high lipid/protein ratio, perturbing their supramolecular states and itself undergoing time-dependent structural adaptation. The structural signatures of Tau4RD/fatty acid aggregates appear similar for arachidonic acid and oleic acid, however, they are distinct from those of another prototypical intrinsically disordered protein, α-synuclein, when bound to these lipids, revealing protein-specific conformational adaptations. Both fatty acid molecules are found to invariably promote the self-aggregation of Tau4RD and of α-synuclein. Conclusions: This study describes the reciprocal influence that Tau4RD and fatty acids exert on their conformational states, contributing to our understanding of fundamental aspects of Tau/lipid co-assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Giorgio Barracchia
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy; (C.G.B.); (R.T.); (F.P.); (F.M.); (M.D.)
| | - Roberto Tira
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy; (C.G.B.); (R.T.); (F.P.); (F.M.); (M.D.)
| | - Francesca Parolini
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy; (C.G.B.); (R.T.); (F.P.); (F.M.); (M.D.)
| | - Francesca Munari
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy; (C.G.B.); (R.T.); (F.P.); (F.M.); (M.D.)
| | - Luigi Bubacco
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy;
| | | | - Mariapina D’Onofrio
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy; (C.G.B.); (R.T.); (F.P.); (F.M.); (M.D.)
| | - Michael Assfalg
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy; (C.G.B.); (R.T.); (F.P.); (F.M.); (M.D.)
- Correspondence:
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