Structure and hypoglycemic activity of a novel exopolysaccharide of Cordyceps militaris

Microbial exopolysaccharides: Unveiling the pharmacological aspects for therapeutic advancements

Microbial exopolysaccharides (EPSs) have emerged as a fascinating area of research in the field of pharmacology due to their diverse and potent biological activities. This review paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the pharmacological properties exhibited by EPSs, shedding light on their potential applications in various therapeutic areas. The review begins by introducing EPSs, exploring their various sources, significance in microbial growth and survival, and their applications across different industries. Subsequently, a thorough examination of the pharmaceutical properties of microbial EPSs unveils their antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antidepressant, antidiabetic, antiviral, antihyperlipidemic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. Mechanistic insights into how different EPSs exert these therapeutic effects have also been discussed in this review. The review also provides comprehensive information about the monosaccharide composition, backbone, branches, glycosidic bonds, and molecular weight of pharmacologically active EPSs from various microbial sources. Furthermore, the factors that can affect the pharmacological activities of EPSs and approaches to improve the EPSs' pharmacological activity have also been discussed. In conclusion, this review illuminates the immense pharmaceutical promise of microbial EPS as versatile bioactive compounds with wide-ranging therapeutic applications. By elucidating their structural features, biological activities, and potential applications, this review aims to catalyze further research and development efforts in leveraging the pharmaceutical potential of microbial EPS for the advancement of human health and well-being, while also contributing to sustainable and environmentally friendly practices in the pharmaceutical industry.

Challenges and opportunities in elucidating the structures of biofilm exopolysaccharides: A case study of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa exopolysaccharide called Pel

Biofilm formation protects bacteria from antibiotic treatment and host immune responses, making biofilm infections difficult to treat. Within biofilms, bacterial cells are entangled in a self-produced extracellular matrix that typically includes exopolysaccharides. Molecular-level descriptions of biofilm matrix components, especially exopolysaccharides, have been challenging to attain due to their complex nature and lack of solubility and crystallinity. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has emerged as a key tool to determine the structure of biofilm matrix exopolysaccharides without degradative sample preparation. In this review, we discuss challenges of studying biofilm matrix exopolysaccharides and opportunities to develop solid-state NMR approaches to study these generally intractable materials. We specifically highlight investigations of the exopolysaccharide called Pel made by the opportunistic pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We provide a roadmap for determining exopolysaccharide structure and discuss future opportunities to study such systems using solid-state NMR. The strategies discussed for elucidating biofilm exopolysaccharide structure should be broadly applicable to studying the structures of other glycans.

Response Surface Optimization of Polysaccharides from Jaboticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora [Mart.] O.Berg) Fruits: Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction, Structure Properties, and Antioxidant/Hypoglycemic Activities

Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) method proves to be more effective compared to traditional extraction methods. In the present study, response surface methodology (RSM) was used to determine the optimal process parameters for extracting polysaccharides (U-MCP) from jaboticaba fruit using UAE. The optimum extraction conditions were ultrasonic time 70 min, extraction temperature 60 °C, and power 350 W. Under these conditions, the sugar content of U-MCP was 52.8 %. The molecular weights of the ultrasound-assisted extracted U-MCP ranged from 9.52×102 to 3.27×103  Da, and consisted of five monosaccharides including mannose, galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose, and arabinose. Moreover, in vitro antioxidant and hypoglycaemic assay revealed that U-MCP has prominent anti-oxidant activities (1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) radicals, hydroxyl radicals and 2,2'-Azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic Acid Ammonium Salt) (ABTS) radicals scavenging activities) and hypoglycemic activities (α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition activities).

A review on polysaccharide biosynthesis in Cordyceps militaris

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is an edible parasitic fungus with medicinal properties. Its bioactive polysaccharides are structurally diverse and exhibit various metabolic and biological activities, including antitumor, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory, and anti-atherosclerotic effects. These properties make C. militaris-derived polysaccharides a promising candidate for future development. Recent advancements in microbial fermentation technology have enabled successful laboratory cultivation and extraction of these polysaccharides. These polysaccharides are structurally diverse and exhibit various biological activities, such as immunostimulatory, antioxidant, antitumor, hypolipidemic, and anti-atherosclerotic effects. This review aims to summarize the structure and production mechanisms of polysaccharides from C. militaris, covering extraction methods, key genes and pathways involved in biosynthesis, and fermentation factors that influence yield and activity. Furthermore, the future potential and challenges of utilizing polysaccharides in the development of health foods and pharmaceuticals are addressed. This review serves as a valuable reference in the fields of food and medicine, and provides a theoretical foundation for the study of polysaccharides.

Cordyceps militaris: A Comprehensive Study on Laboratory Cultivation and Anticancer Potential in Dalton's Ascites Lymphoma Tumor Model

BACKGROUND

Cancer, a predominant cause of mortality, poses a formidable challenge in our pursuit of elevating life expectancy. Throughout history, individuals have sought natural remedies with minimal side effects as an appealing substitute for chemotherapeutic drugs. One such remedy is Cordyceps militaris, a renowned medicinal mushroom deeply entrenched in Asian ethnomedicine. Revered for its rejuvenating and curative attributes, it relied upon for ages.

OBJECTIVE

The mushroom's soaring demand outpaced natural availability, necessitating controlled laboratory cultivation as the core focus and exploring the potential of methanolic extracts from harvested Cordyceps militaris fruiting bodies against Dalton's Lymphoma Ascites (DLA) cells in vitro, with a specific emphasis on its anticancer traits.

METHODS

For cultivation, we employed a diverse range of rice substrates, among which bora rice showed promising growth of C. militaris fruiting bodies. To assess DLA cell cytotoxicity, several assays, including trypan blue exclusion assay, MTT assay, and LDH assay, were employed at different time points (24-96 h), which provided valuable insights on DLA cell viability and proliferation, shedding light on its therapeutic potential against cancer.

RESULTS

Our studies unveiled that methanolic extract prompts apoptosis in DLA cells via AO/EB dual staining, manifesting consistent apoptosis indicators such as membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation, nuclei fragmentation, and cellular shrinkage at 48-96 h of treatment. Furthermore, these striking repercussions of apoptosis were comprehended by an in silico approach having molecular docking simulation against antiapoptotic proteins like BCL-2, BCL-XL, MCL-1, BFL-1 & HSP100.

CONCLUSION

Methanolic C. militaris extracts exhibited cytotoxicity and apoptotic alterations in DLA cells.

Hypoglycemic Effect of Edible Fungi Polysaccharides Depends on Their Metabolites from the Fermentation of Human Fecal Microbiota

Edible fungi polysaccharides are widely sourced and have various physiological activities, including hypoglycemic. Current studies mainly focus on the hypoglycemic activity of polysaccharides themselves, while the strength of the hypoglycemic activity of edible fungi polysaccharides from different sources remained elusive. This study compared the hypoglycemic activity of different edible fungi polysaccharides after in vitro fermentation by fecal bacteria, combined with non-targeted metabolomics and 16S rDNA analysis, to screen out potential key metabolites related to the hypoglycemic activity. The results show that the fermentation supernatants of all four edible fungi polysaccharides significantly increased the glucose consumption and glycogen synthesis of IR-HepG2, also up-regulated the level of hexokinase and down-regulated the level of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase. All fermentation supernatants could alleviate the insulin resistance of IR-HepG2 cells by regulating the expression levels of genes related to the IRS-1/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Gingerglycolipid A, sphinganine 1-phosphate, matricin, tricarballylic acid, N-carbamoylputrescine, nomega-acetylhistamine, tyramine, and benzamide could be considered as potential key metabolites to evaluate the hypoglycemic effects. Their levels were strongly positively correlated with the abundance of Candidatus_Stoquefichu, Faecalibacterium, Coprococcus, Bacteroides, Eubacterium_ventriosum_group, Anaerostipes, Parabacteroides, and Agathobacter. These metabolites and microorganisms are closely related to the hypoglycemic activity of edible fungi polysaccharides.

A Systematic Review on the Research Progress on Polysaccharides from Fungal Traditional Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a class of natural drugs with multiple components and significant therapeutic effects through multiple targets. It also originates from a wide range of sources containing plants, animals and minerals, and among them, plant-based Chinese medicine also includes fungi. Fungal traditional Chinese medicine is a medicinal resource with a long history and widespread application in China. Accumulating evidence confirms that polysaccharide is the main pharmacodynamic material on which fungal TCM is based. The purpose of the current systematic review is to summarize the extraction, isolation, structural identification, biological functions, quality control and medicinal and edible applications of polysaccharides from fungal TCM in the past three years. This paper will supplement and deepen the understanding and application of polysaccharides from fungal TCM, and propose some valuable insights for further research and development of drugs and functional foods.

Bioactive compounds from Cordyceps and their therapeutic potential

The Clavicipitaceae family's largest and most diverse genus is Cordyceps. They are most abundant and diverse in humid temperate and tropical forests and have a wide distribution in: Europe, North America, and East and Southeast Asian countries, particularly: Bhutan, China, Japan, Nepal, Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, Tibet, and the Himalayan region of India, and Sikkim. It is a well-known parasitic fungus that feeds on insects and other arthropods belonging to 10 different orders. Over 200 bioactive metabolites, that include: nucleotides and nucleosides, polysaccharides, proteins, polypeptides, amino acids, sterols, and fatty acids, among others have been extracted from Cordyceps spp. demonstrating the phytochemical richness of this genus. These components have been associated with a variety of pharmacological effects, including: anti-microbial, anti-apoptotic, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities. In this paper, the bioactivity of various classes of metabolites produced by Cordyceps spp., and their therapeutic properties have been reviewed in an attempt to update the existing literature. Furthermore, one of its nucleoside and a key bioactive compound, cordycepin has been critically elaborated with regard to its biosynthesis pathway and the recently proposed protector-protégé mechanism as well as various biological and pharmacological effects, such as: suppression of purine and nucleic acid biosynthesis, induction of apoptosis, and cell cycle regulation with their mechanism of action. This review provides current knowledge on the bioactive potential of Cordyceps spp.

Anti-Diabetic Activity of a Novel Exopolysaccharide Produced by the Mangrove Endophytic Fungus Penicillium janthinellum N29

Marine microorganisms often produce exopolysaccharides with novel structures and diverse biological activities due to their specific marine environment. The novel active exopolysaccharides from marine microorganisms have become an important research area in new drug discovery, and show enormous development prospects. In the present study, a homogeneous exopolysaccharide from the fermented broth of the mangrove endophytic fungus Penicillium janthinellum N29, designated as PJ1-1, was obtained. The results of chemical and spectroscopic analyses showed that PJ1-1 was a novel galactomannan with a molecular weight of about 10.24 kDa. The backbone of PJ1-1 was composed of →2)-α-d-Manp-(1→, →4)-α-d-Manp-(1→, →3)-β-d-Galf-(1→ and →2)-β-d-Galf-(1→ units with partial glycosylation at C-3 of →2)-β-d-Galf-(1→ unit. PJ1-1 had a strong hypoglycemic activity in vitro, evaluated using the assay of α-glucosidase inhibition. The anti-diabetic effect of PJ1-1 in vivo was further investigated using mice with type 2 diabetes mellitus induced by a high-fat diet and streptozotocin. The results indicated that PJ1-1 markedly reduced blood glucose level and improved glucose tolerance. Notably, PJ1-1 increased insulin sensitivity and ameliorated insulin resistance. Moreover, PJ1-1 significantly decreased the levels of serum total cholesterol, triglyceride and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, enhanced the level of serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and alleviated dyslipidemia. These results revealed that PJ1-1 could be a potential source of anti-diabetic agent.

Low-temperature plasma modification, structural characterization and anti-diabetic activity of an apricot pectic polysaccharide

To fully research the anti-diabetic activity of apricot polysaccharide, low temperature plasma (LTP) was used to modify apricot polysaccharide. The modified polysaccharide was isolated and purified using column chromatography. It was found that LTP modification can significantly improve the α-glucosidase glucosidase inhibition rate of apricot polysaccharides. The isolated fraction FAPP-2D with HG domain showed excellent anti-diabetic activity in insulin resistance model in L6 cell. We found that FAPP-2D increased the ADP/ATP ratio and inhibited PKA phosphorylation, activating the LKB1-AMPK pathway. Moreover, FAPP-2D activated AMPK-PGC1α pathway, which could stimulated mitochondrial production and regulate energy metabolism, promoting GLUT4 protein transport to achieve an anti-diabetic effect. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy data showed that the LTP modification could increase the CH bond content while decreasing the C-O-C/C-O bond content, indicating that LTP destroyed the C-O-C/C-O bond, which enhanced the anti-diabetes activity of the modified apricot pectin polysaccharide. Our findings could pave the way for the molecular exploitation of apricot polysaccharides and the application of low-temperature plasma.

Cordyceps militaris acidic polysaccharides improve learning and memory impairment in mice with exercise fatigue through the PI3K/NRF2/HO-1 signalling pathway

Excessive exercise leads to body fatigue and destroys the balance of the oxidation/oxidation resistance system in the body, thus damaging the central nervous system and reducing learning and memory ability. Nrf2 is an important transcription factor that regulates the cell oxidative stress response. Therefore, the research and development of natural antioxidants with the effect of regulating Nrf2-related signalling pathways to improve central fatigue caused by body fatigue has application value. Methods and results: Cordyceps militaris polysaccharides were extracted, isolated and purified via DEAE-cellulose 52 and Sepharose CL-6B columns to obtain two saccharides, Cordyceps militaris acidic polysaccharides (CMPB) and CMPB-b. The results of behavioural tests showed that compared with the model group, the learning and memory abilities of the CMPB-H group (800 mg/kg) mice were remarkably improved in the dark avoidance and Morris water maze tasks (p < 0.01), and the levels of fatigue metabolites and oxidative stress in the body were obviously decreased (p < 0.01). The expression level of BDNF, PI3K, Nrf2 and HO-1 proteins in the hippocampus were significantly increased (p < 0.01). In vitro experiments, compared with the PC12 oxidative stress model group, CMPB-b high-dose group (100 μg/mL) had remarkably improved oxidative stress. CMPB-b also obviously promoted the phosphorylation of PI3K and AKT proteins (p < 0.01) and the nuclear translocation of Nrf2 (p < 0.01), and significantly increased the expression of HO-1 (p < 0.01). Conclusion: CMPB can alleviate the fatigue state of high-intensity swimming mice and improve the learning and memory impairment of exercise-fatigue mice by regulating the Nrf2-related signalling pathway. Its antioxidant active component CMPB-b exerts in vitro antioxidative neurological damage by the same mechanism. Our systematic studies provide strong supporting evidence for the future use of Cordyceps militaris acidic polysaccharides in health products to improve resistance to fatigue.

Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Mushrooms

Research progress of active compounds and biological activities of medicinal mushroom-Ganoderma spp., Hericium spp., Phellinus spp., and Cordyceps spp. were summarized systematically. The main active compounds of medicinal mushrooms included are polysaccharides, proteins, triterpenes, meroterpenoids, polyphenols and nitrogen-containing compounds. The biological activities of the compounds cover immunomodulatory activity, antitumor activity, hypoglycemic activity, hepatoprotective activity, and activity of regulation of intellectual flora.

Separation and Structural Characterization of a Novel Exopolysaccharide from Rhizopus nigricans

The present study aims to analyze the structural characterization and antioxidant activity of a novel exopolysaccharide from Rhizopus nigricans (EPS2-1). For this purpose, EPS2-1 was purified through DEAE-52, Sephadex G-100, and Sephadex G-75 chromatography. The structural characterization of EPS2-1 was analyzed using high-performance gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), methylation analysis, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra, transmission electron microscope (TEM), and atomic force microscope (AFM). The results revealed that EPS2-1 is composed of mannose (Man), galactose (Gal), glucose (Glc), arabinose (Ara), and Fucose (Fuc), and possesses a molecular weight of 32.803 kDa. The backbone of EPS2-1 comprised →2)-α-D-Manp-(1→ and →3)-β-D-Galp-(1→, linked with the O-6 position of (→2,6)-α-D-Manp-(1→) of the main chain is branch α-D-Manp-(1→6)-α-D-Manp-(1→, linked with the O-6 positions of (→3)-β-D-Galp-(1→) of the main chain are branches →4)-β-D-Glcp-(1→ and →3)-β-D-Galp-(1→, respectively. Finally, we demonstrated that EPS2-1 also shows free radical scavenging activity and iron ion reducing ability. At the same time, EPS2-1 could inhibit the proliferation of MFC cells and increase the cell viability of RAW264.7 cells. Our results suggested that EPS2-1 is a novel polysaccharide, and EPS2-1 has antioxidant activity. In addition, EPS2-1 may possess potential immunomodulatory and antitumor activities. This study promoted the application of EPS2-1 as the functional ingredients in the pharmaceutical and food industries.

Hypoglycemic Effect of Exopolysaccharide from Lactiplantibacillus plantarum JLAU103 on Streptozotocin and High-Fat Diet-Induced Type 2 Diabetic Mice

Two doses (300 mg/kg bw and 600 mg/kg bw) of the Lactiplantibacillus plantarum JLAU103 exopolysaccharide (EPS103) were orally administered to a type 2 diabetic (T2DM) mouse model induced by streptozotocin and a high-fat diet. The hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and neuroprotective effects of EPS103 on T2DM mice were evaluated. The results indicated that administration of EPS103 could alleviate insulin resistance, reduce the levels of fasting blood glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin A1c, leptin and fasting serum insulin, improve glucose tolerance, protect pancreas and liver, and modulate blood lipid disorders. EPS103 promoted hepatic glycogen synthesis by upregulating the phosphorylation of GSK3β. Meanwhile, it upregulated the phosphorylation of IRS-1, PI3K and Akt, as well as the expression of IRS-2 and GLUT4, and downregulated the expression of PEPCK, G6Pase and PGC-1α, indicating that EPS103 promotes the uptake and transport of glucose and inhibits gluconeogenesis, which might be related to the activation of the IRS-1/PI3K/Akt pathway. Additionally, EPS103 can protect against brain nerve damage through improving oxidative stress injury, restoring the expression of IRS-2, alleviating neuronal apoptosis and inhibiting inflammation in the hippocampus of T2DM mice. Taken together, our results demonstrated that EPS103 may be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of T2DM.

Metabolites and Their Bioactivities from the Genus Cordyceps

The Cordyceps genus is a group of ascomycete parasitic fungi, and all known species of this genus are endoparasites; they mainly feed on insects or arthropods and a few feed on other fungi. Fungi of this genus have evolved highly specific and complex mechanisms to escape their host’s immune system and coordinate their life cycle coefficients with those of their hosts for survival and reproduction; this mechanism has led to the production of distinctive metabolites in response to the host’s defenses. Herein, we review approximately 131 metabolites discovered in the genus Cordyceps (including mycelium, fruiting bodies and fungal complexes) in the past 15 years, which can be used as an important source for new drug research and development. We summarize chemical structures, bioactivity and the potential application of these natural metabolites. We have excluded some reports that originally belonged to Cordyceps, but whose taxonomic attribution is no longer the Cordyceps genus. This can and will serve as a resource for drug discovery.

The Regulation of Micro-Organisms' Extra-Cellular Polysaccharides on Immunity: A Meta-Analysis

Extra-cellular polysaccharides (EPSs) have excellent immunomodulatory functions. In order to further promote their application, we studied the ability of extra-cellular polysaccharides from different sources to regulate immunity. We studied the association of extra-cellular polysaccharides with immune factors (Interleukin (IL-2, IL-4, IL-10), Interferon γ (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), Immunoglobulin A (IgA), and Immunoglobulin G (IgG)) and different concentrations of EPSs and interfering media on experimental results by using a forest plot under fixed-effect or random-effects models. Through Google, PubMed, Embase, ScienceDirect, and Medline, from 2000 to 2021, 12 articles were included. We found that exopolysaccharides (from bacteria or fungi) could significantly increase the immune index of spleen and thymus, spleen index (SMD: 2.11, ‘95%CI: [1.15, 3.08]’; p < 0.01), and thymus index (SMD: 1.62, ‘95%CI: [0.93, 2.32]’; p = 0.01 < 0.05). In addition, exopolysaccharides had a significant effect on TNF-α (SMD: 0.94, ‘95%CI: [0.29, 1.59]’; p = 0.01 < 0.05). For IL-4 (SMD: 0.49, ‘95%CI: [0.01, 0.98]’; p = 0.046 < 0.05), extra-cellular polysaccharides had a statistically significant effect on immunity. Although the data of other immune factors were not ideal, the comprehensive analysis showed that exopolysaccharides also had an effect on the release of these five immune factors. In the sub-group analysis, different concentrations of EPSs affected the results of experiments on the spleen and thymus, and the CY intervention had a relatively significant effect on immune regulation. Taken together, our study highlighted that EPSs have a significant impact on immune regulation.

Structural Elucidation and Activities of Cordyceps militaris-Derived Polysaccharides: A Review

Cordyceps militaris is a parasitic edible fungus and has been used as tonics for centuries. Polysaccharides are a major water-soluble component of C. militaris. Recently, C. militaris-derived polysaccharides have been given much attention due to their various actions including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-diabetic, anti-atherosclerotic, and immunomodulatory effects. These bioactivities are determined by the various structural characteristics of polysaccharides including monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, and glycosidic linkage. The widespread use of advanced analytical analysis tools has greatly improved the elucidation of the structural characteristics of C. militaris-derived polysaccharides. However, the methods for polysaccharide structural characterization and the latest findings related to C. militaris-derived polysaccharides, especially the potential structure-activity relationship, have not been well-summarized in recent reviews of the literature. This review will discuss the methods used in the elucidation of the structure of polysaccharides and structural characteristics as well as the signaling pathways modulated by C. militaris-derived polysaccharides. This article provides information useful for the development of C. militaris-derived polysaccharides as well as for investigating other medicinal polysaccharides.

Isolation and immune activity of a new acidic Cordyceps militaris exopolysaccharide

A new type of acidic exopolysaccharide (AESP-II) was extracted and separated from the fermentation broth of Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris), which was further purified to elucidate its structural characteristics and immunological activity. AESP-II was confirmed to be an acidic pyranose with a molecular weight of 61.52 kDa, which consisted of mannose, glucuronic acid, rhamnose, galactose acid, N-acetyl-galactosamine, glucose, galactose and arabinose with a molar ratio of 1.07: 5.38: 1: 3.14: 2.23: 15: 6.09: and 4.04. Animal experiment results verified that AESP-II can significantly promote the proliferation of spleen T and B lymphocytes in mice with immune injury caused by cyclophosphamide (CTX). In particular, the promotion of B lymphocytes presented a dose-effect relationship. In addition, the levels of the cytokines IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ, which are mainly secreted by T lymphocytes, and immunoglobulin IgG, IgM and IgA, which are mainly secreted by B lymphocytes, were increased after AESP-II treatment. The above results suggest that fluid immunity is involved in the immunomodulatory function of AESP-II. Simultaneously, AESP-II was detected significantly to promote the phosphorylation expression of p38 kinase (p38), extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) by Western blot, further suggesting that the activation of the MAPK signaling pathway mediates the immunoregulatory function of AESP-II.

Structural elucidation and anti-diabetic osteoporotic activity of an arabinogalactan from Phellodendron chinense Schneid

Phellodendron chinense Schneid. was widely used as a medicinal herb for the treatment of diabetic osteoporosis in China. In this study, an arabinogalactan, named as PPCP-1, was isolated from the bark of Phellodendron chinense Schneid., and purified by DEAE-cellulose DE52 and Sephacryl S-200 HR column chromatography. The structure of PPCP-1 was characterized as a repeating unit consisting of →3)-β-d-Galp-(1→, →3,6)-β-d-Galp-(1→, →5)-α-l-Araf-(1→, →4)-α-d-Glcp-(1→, →3)-α-d-Glcp-(1→, →4)-α-d-Manp-(1→ with branches of →5)-α-l-Araf-(1→, →3,5)-α-l-Araf-(1→ and terminal α-l-Araf. Pharmacologically, the oral administration of PPCP-1 preserved osteoporosis associated with hyperglycemia by inhibiting α-glucosidase activity, improving glucose tolerance, decreasing the accumulation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), as well as down-regulating the expression of receptor for AGEs in tibias of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Collectively, the present study suggested that the arabinogalactan PPCP-1 from Phellodendron chinense Schneid. might potentially be used as functional foods for bone health and/or developed for drug discovery for alleviating diabetic osteoporosis.

Cordyceps militaris: An Overview of Its Chemical Constituents in Relation to Biological Activity

Cordyceps spp. mushrooms have a long tradition of use as a natural raw material in Asian ethnomedicine because of their adaptogenic, tonic effects and their ability to reduce fatigue and stimulate the immune system in humans. This review aims to present the chemical composition and medicinal properties of Cordyceps militaris fruiting bodies and mycelium, as well as mycelium from in vitro cultures. The analytical results of the composition of C. militaris grown in culture media show the bioactive components such as cordycepin, polysaccharides, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), ergothioneine and others described in the review. To summarize, based on the presence of several bioactive compounds that contribute to biological activity, C. militaris mushrooms definitely deserve to be considered as functional foods and also have great potential for medicinal use. Recent scientific reports indicate the potential of cordycepin in antiviral activity, particularly against COVID-19.

Polysaccharides Obtained from Cordyceps militaris Alleviate Hyperglycemia by Regulating Gut Microbiota in Mice Fed a High-Fat/Sucrose Diet

Polysaccharides isolated from fungus Cordyceps militaris display multi-biofunctions, such as immunostimulation, down-regulation of hyperlipidemia, and anti-cancer function. The occurrence of obesity and metabolic syndrome is related to the imbalance of gut microbiota. In this study, the effects of C. militaris and its fractions on modifying metabolic syndrome in mice were evaluated. Mice were fed a high-fat/high-sucrose diet (HFSD) for 14 weeks to induce body weight increase and hyperlipidemia symptoms in mice, and then the mice were simultaneously given a HFSD and C. militaris samples for a further 8 weeks. The results indicated that the fruit body, polysaccharides, and cordycepin obtained from C. militaris had different efficacies on regulating metabolic syndrome and gut microbiota in HFSD-treated mice. Polysaccharides derived from C. militaris decreased the levels of blood sugar and serum lipids in mice fed HFSD. In addition, C. militaris-polysaccharide treatment obviously improved intestinal dysbiosis through promoting the population of next generation probiotic Akkermansia muciniphila in the gut of mice fed HFSD. In conclusion, polysaccharides derived from C. militaris have the potential to act as dietary supplements and health food products for modifying the gut microbiota to improve the metabolic syndrome.

Structural characteristics of a hypoglycemic polysaccharide from Fructus Corni

PFC-3 is a homogeneous polysaccharide extracted from the dried pulps of Fructus Corni with a molecular weight of 40.3 kDa. The crude polysaccharide was obtained and further purified by DEAE-Sephadex A-25 and Sephadex G-100 columns to investigate its structure and glycemic effect. The monosaccharides in the PFC-3, determined by high-performance liquid chromatography, consisted of glucose (Glc), xylose (Xyl), and galactose (Gal) with a mass molar ratio of 2.35:12.49:1.00. The methylation analysis combined with 1D (¹H and ¹³C), and 2D NMR (¹H-¹H COSY, HSQC, and HMBC) further demonstrated that PFC-3 was mainly composed of 1,3-α-D-Xylp, 1,6-α-D-Galp, 1,2-α-D-Glcp, and T-α-D-Galp, and contained a backbone fragment of →6)-α-D-Galp-(1 → 2)-α-D-Glcp-(1 → 3)-α-D-Xylp-(1 → . The hypoglycemic effect of PFC-3 in vitro was evaluated by glucose uptake and consumption assays, and the results showed that PFC-3 concentration-dependently enhanced glucose uptake and significantly improved glucose consumption in insulin-resistant HepG2 cells. Furthermore, PFC-3 significantly reduced fasting blood glucose level, glycosylated hemoglobin level, amylase activity, ameliorate lipid metabolism, and hepatic lesions in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Our research provided insights into the hypoglycemic activities of PFC-3.

Purification, characterization and anti-atherosclerotic effects of the polysaccharides from the fruiting body of Cordyceps militaris

Hyperlipidemia is one major cause of atherosclerosis, which is a basic pathological change of cardiovascular diseases. Polysaccharide is a water-soluble component with lipid-lowering effects. In this study, alkaline-extracted polysaccharides were obtained from the fruiting body of C. militaris. Polysaccharides were purified via anion exchange and size exclusion chromatography. Their structural characteristics were investigated via chemical and spectroscopic methods. CM3I was mainly composed of →4)α-D-Glcp(1 → glycosyls and differed from starch due to the presence of →4,6)β-D-Glcp(1 → glycosyls. CM3II was characterized by its backbone, which was composed of →4)-β-D-Manp(1 → 6)-α-D-Manp(1 → 6)-β-D-Manp(1 → linked glycosyls, and especially the presence of O-methyl. Moreover, CM3II exhibited powerful anti-atherosclerotic effects via lowering plasma lipid levels in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. The underlying mechanisms were attributed to its promoting effect on LXRα and inhibitory effect on SREBP-2. Collectively, CM3I and CM3II are different from the previously reported polysaccharides from C. militaris, and CM3II has a potential application in hypolipidemia and anti-atherosclerosis.