Use of combined nanocarrier system based on chitosan nanoparticles and phospholipids complex for improved delivery of ferulic acid

The beneficial health effects of puerarin in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases: from mechanisms to therapeutics

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading causes of death globally that seriously threaten human health. Although novel western medicines have continued to be discovered over the past few decades to inhibit the progression of CVDs, new drug research and development for treating CVDs with less side effects and adverse reactions are continuously being desired. Puerarin is a natural product found in a variety of medicinal plants belonging to the flavonoid family with potent biological and pharmacological activities. Abundant research findings in the literature have suggested that puerarin possesses a promising prospect in treating CVDs. In recent years, numerous new molecular mechanisms of puerarin have been explored in experimental and clinical studies, providing new evidence for this plant metabolite to protect against CVDs. This article systematically introduces the history of use, bioavailability, and various dosage forms of puerarin and further summarizes recently published data on the major research advances and their underlying therapeutic mechanisms in treating CVDs. It may provide references for researchers in the fields of pharmacology, natural products, and internal medicine.

Development of phospholipon®90H complex nanocarrier with enhanced oral bioavailability and anti-inflammatory potential of genistein

Genistein (GEN), an isoflavonoid, offers multifunctional biological activities. However, its poor oral bioavailability, aqueous solubility, extensive metabolism, and short half-life restricted its clinical use. Therefore, the Phospholipon^®90H complex of genistein (GPLC) was prepared to enhance its biopharmaceutical properties and anti-inflammatory activity. GPLC was characterized by employing particle size and zeta potential, Fourier transforms infrared spectrophotometry, differential scanning calorimetry, powder x-ray diffractometry, proton nuclear magnetic resonance, aqueous solubility, in vitro dissolution, ex vivo permeation, oral bioavailability and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity. The complex showed high entrapment of GEN (∼97.88% w/w) within the Phospholipon^®90H matrix. Particle size and zeta potential studies confirmed the small particle size with the modest stability of GPLC. The characterization analysis supported the formation of GPLC through the participation of hydrogen bonding between GEN and Phospholipon^®90H. GPLC significantly enhanced the aqueous solubility (∼2-fold) compared to GEN. Dissolution studies revealed that GPLC drastically improved the GEN dissolution rate compared to GEN. Likewise, the complex improved the permeation rate across the membrane compared to GEN. GPLC formulation significantly enhanced the oral bioavailability of GEN via improving its Cmax, tmax, AUC, half-life and mean residence time within the blood circulation compared to GEN. The GPLC (∼20 mg/kg, p.o.) remarkably inhibited the increase in paw edema up to 5 h, compared to GEN and diclofenac. Results suggest that the Phospholipon^®90 complex is a superior and promising carrier for enhancing the biopharmaceutical parameters of GEN and other bioactive with similar properties.

A Metformin-Ferulic Acid Salt with Improved Biopharmaceutical Parameters

Though ferulic acid presents great hypoglycemic potential, it possesses limited aqueous solubility, and low oral bioavailability. When associated with metformin, the first-choice drug in Type 2 diabetes treatment, FA demonstrates synergistic hypoglycemic effects, however, it also causes certain undesirable dose-related effects. This study aimed to develop a new ferulic acid - metformin multicomponent system, and incorporate it into a solid dosage form with improved biopharmaceutical parameters. A novel metformin: ferulate (1:1) salt (MFS) was produced, which was properly characterized using differing analytical techniques, including single crystal analysis. Also during the course of the study, a new polymorph of the metformin free base was observed. The MFS was obtained using solvent evaporation methods, which achieved high yields in reproducible process, as well as a 740-fold increase in ferulic acid aqueous solubility. The MFS tablets developed met quality control requirements for this dosage form, as well as revealing excellent performance in vitro dissolution tests, presenting dissolution efficiency values of 95.4 ± 0.5%. Additionally, physicochemical instability was not observed in a study at 40 °C for 3 months for both MFS powder and its tablet form. The MFS product developed is a promising candidate for further Type 2 diabetes clinical study.

Liver-Targeting Composite Nanocarrier Delivery System Based on Chitosan Nanoparticles and Phospholipid Complexes

Liver fibrosis is mainly caused by excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix and structural changes in the liver, ultimately leading to cirrhosis if left untreated. Reducing hyaluronan synthesis by inhibiting hyaluronic acid deposition or regulating the expression of hyaluronic synthase can ameliorate liver fibrosis symptoms. In this study, we aimed to improve the bioavailability and liver-targeting capacity of hydroxymethyl coumarin (4-MU) using a newly developed phospholipid complex chitosan nanoparticle (4-MU PC/CNP) optimized using the Box-Behnken design. The composite nanocarrier delivery system was formulated using solvent evaporation technology, and formulation and process parameters were evaluated. Furthermore, 4-MU PC/CNPs and their pharmacokinetics were characterized. The established 4-MU PC/CNPs had an average particle size of 153.07 ± 0.29 nm, a polydispersity index value of 0.383, and a positive zeta potential of ∼35.4 mV. Compared with 4-MUs, 4-MU PC/CNPs exhibited significantly improved water solubility, faster plasma clearance and tissue distribution, and better liver targeting. Pharmacokinetic analysis showed that the oral bioavailability of 4-MU in 4-MU PC/CNPs was significantly higher than that of simple 4-MU. In conclusion, 4-MU PC improved drug lipid (oil-water distribution coefficient of 1.31 ± 0.03) and water solubilities (2.05 times the drug substance). 4-MU PC/CNPs significantly improved 4-MU oral bioavailability, representing a promising approach for enhancing drug solubility. This study demonstrates that the targeting parameters of 4-MU PC/CNPs in the liver were all greater than 1, indicating that they specifically targeted the liver, thereby potentially alleviating liver fibrosis.

Development and Characterization of Pentaerythritol-EudragitRS100 Co-processed Excipients as Solid Dispersion Carriers for Enhanced Aqueous Solubility, In Vitro Dissolution, and Ex Vivo Permeation of Atorvastatin

Atorvastatin (ATV), a lipid-lowering agent, has low oral bioavailability due to its poor water solubility, permeability, and low dissolution rate. Therefore, pentaerythritol-EudragitRS100 co-processed excipients (PECE) were synthesized, and their feasibility as solid dispersion carriers (ATV-PECE-SD) for improving the solubility, permeability, and dissolution rate of ATV was explored. Solid dispersions were assessed in terms of particle size and zeta potential, and solubility, in vitro dissolution, and ex vivo permeation studies were studied. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) were used as characterization tools. ATV-PECE-SD3 (1:4) formulations exhibited a small particle size with high stability. Physicochemical evaluation evidenced the formation of solid dispersion due to the involvement of weak electrostatic interaction between the polar functional groups of ATV and PECE carriers. ATV-PECE-SD3 (1:4) significantly enhanced the water solubility by ∼43-fold compared to pure ATV. In vitro dissolution studies showed that optimized formulation enhanced the dissolution rate of ATV compared to pure ATV. Ex vivo permeation results revealed that ATV-PECE-SD3 (1:4) enhanced the permeation rate of ATV compared to pure ATV. The optimized formulations significantly improved the dissolution rate of ATV in the fed state due to the food effect and micelle formation mechanism compared to the fasted state. The study concludes that co-processed excipients could be used as promising solid dispersion carriers to enhance the aqueous solubility, permeability, and dissolution rate of ATV.

Piperine Liposome-Embedded in Hyaluronan Hydrogel as an Effective Platform for Prevention of Postoperative Peritoneal Adhesion

This study aimed to prepare piperine (PIP) loaded liposomes in hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogel to provide a hybrid superstructure for postoperative adhesion prevention. Liposomes were prepared using thin-film hydration method. The optimised formulation was characterised by size, SEM, TEM, FTIR, encapsulation efficiency (EE)% (w/w), and release pattern. Liposome-in-hydrogel formulation was investigated by rheology, SEM, and release studies. The efficacy was evaluated in a rat peritoneal abrasion model. EE% (w/w) increased with increasing lipid concentration from 10 to 30; however, a higher percentage of Chol reduced EE% (w/w). The optimised liposome (EE: 68.10 ± 4.18% (w/w), average diameter: 513 ± 14.67 nm, PDI: 0.15 ± 0.04) was used for hydrogel embedding. No sign of adhesion in 5/8 rats and no collagen deposition confirmed the in vivo effectiveness of the optimised formulation. Overall, providing a sustained delivery of PIP, the developed liposome-in-hydrogel formulation can be a promising carrier to prevent postoperative adhesion.

Simultaneous loading of (-)-epigallocatechin gallate and ferulic acid in chitosan-based nanoparticles as effective antioxidant and potential skin-whitening agents

Chitosan (CS) based nanoparticles simultaneously loaded with (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and ferulic acid (FA) were fabricated via ionic gelation method modified by sodium tripolyphosphate and genipin (G-CS-EGCG-FA NPs). The particle size, morphology, entrapment efficiency, rheological properties, antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibitory activity of NPs were investigated. The G-CS-EGCG-FA NPs exhibited irregular ellipsoidal shape with average diameter of 412.3 nm and high DPPH and ABTS·⁺ scavenging ability. The entrapment efficiency of EGCG and FA in NPs was 46.0 ± 1.3 % and 46.8 ± 1.6 %, respectively. CS-based NPs show no toxic effects on NIH 3 T3 cells and B16-F10 melanoma cells with concentration <200 μg/mL and 25 μg/mL, respectively and the cell viability ranged from 100 % to 118 %. Meanwhile, the oxidative repaired capacity of G-CS-EGCG-FA NPs (200 μg/mL) in H₂O₂-induced cells was over 100 %, higher than that of the same dose of free EGCG or FA. Moreover, the tyrosinase inhibition activity of G-CS-EGCG-FA NPs (25 μg/mL) (84.6 %) was more potent than that of free EGCG (55.3 %), free FA (47.1 %) and kojic acid, indicating the good skin repairing and whitening ability of G-CS-EGCG-FA NPs. Given these results, this research provides new insights for designing novel particles loaded with dual bioactive agents that possess synergistic benefits.

Biodegradable Nanoparticles Prepared from Chitosan and Casein for Delivery of Bioactive Polysaccharides

Ophiopogon japonicus polysaccharides (OJPs) have great anti-inflammation and immunomodulatory abilities. However, the low bioavailability of OJPs reduces its applicability in the biomedical and pharmaceutical fields. Chitosan (CS) has excellent mucoadhesive properties and absorption-enhancing ability in oral administration. Casein hydrolysate (CL) has good interfacial diffusivity and emulsifying ability, and can interact with polysaccharides to form complexes combining the individual properties of both. Therefore, chitosan and casein hydrolysate are good candidates for developing nanoformulations for oral delivery. In this study, bioactive polysaccharides (OJPs), CS and CL, were combined to prepare CS/OJPs/CL co-assembled biodegradable nanoparticles. The interactions between polysaccharides (CS and OJPs) and peptide (CL) resulted in the formation of nanoparticles with an average particle size of 198 nm and high OJPs loading efficiency. The colloidal properties of the nanoparticles were pH-dependent, which were changed significantly in simulated digestive fluid at different pH values. OJPs released from the CS/OJPs/CL nanoparticles were greatly affected by pH and enzymatic degradation (trypsin and lysozyme). The nanoparticles were easily internalized by macrophages, thereby enhancing the OJPs’ inhibitory ability against Ni²⁺-induced cytotoxicity and LPS-induced nitric oxide production. This study demonstrates that prepared polysaccharide/protein co-assembled nanoparticles can be potential nanocarriers for the oral delivery of bioactive polysaccharides with anti-inflammatory functions.

Tailoring the multi-functional properties of phospholipids for simple to complex self-assemblies

The unique interfacial properties, huge diversity, and biocompatible nature of phospholipids make them an attractive pharmaceutical excipient. The amphiphilic nature of these molecules offers them the property to self-assemble into distinct structures. The solubility, chemical and structural properties, surface charge, and critical packing parameters of phospholipids play an essential role during formulation design. This review focuses on the relationship between the structural features of a phospholipid molecule and the formation of different lipid-based nanocarrier drug delivery systems. This provides a rationale and guideline for the selection of appropriate phospholipids while designing a drug delivery system. Finally, we refer to relevant recent case studies covering different types of phospholipid-based systems including simple to complex assemblies. Different carriers in the size range of 50 nm to a few microns can be prepared using phospholipids. The carriers can be delivered through oral, intravenous, nasal, dermal, transmucosal, and subcutaneous routes. A wide range of applicability can be achieved by incorporating various hydrophilic and lipophilic additives in the phospholipid bilayer. Advanced research has led to the discovery of phospholipid complexes and cell membrane mimicking lipids. Overall, phospholipids remain a versatile pharmaceutical excipient for drug delivery. They play multiple roles as solubilizer, emulsifier, surfactant, permeation enhancer, coating agent, release modifier, and liposome former.

Calcium Ion-Sodium Alginate-Piperine-Based Microspheres: Evidence of Enhanced Encapsulation Efficiency, Bio-Adhesion, Controlled Delivery, and Oral Bioavailability of Isoniazid

Isoniazid (INH) is a first-line chemotherapeutic drug employed in the management of tuberculosis. However, its extensive first-pass metabolism, short-life life, and low oral bioavailability confined its medical application. Therefore, the calcium ion-alginate-piperine microspheres (INH-CaSP Ms) was prepared to enhance encapsulation efficiency, controlled delivery, and oral bioavailability of INH. The INH-CaSP Ms was developed using a modified emulsification method and optimized via Box-Behnken design (BBD). Optimized INH-CaSP Ms were characterized for encapsulation efficiency, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), bio-adhesion, in vitro dissolution, ex vivo permeation, and oral bioavailability studies. Characterization studies confirmed the formation of microspheres. The INH-CaSP Ms showed spherical microspheres with enhanced encapsulation efficiency (~ 93.03 ± 1.54% w/w). The optimized INH-CaSP Ms exhibited higher bio-adhesion around (~ 81.41 ± 1.31%). The INH-CaSP Ms enhanced the dissolution rate of INH (~ 57%) compared to pure INH (~ 57%) and INH-SA Ms (~ 81%) in simulated gastric fluid (SGF, pH 1.2) and simulated intestinal fluid (SIF, pH 7.4). The same formulations improved the permeation rate of INH (~ 90%) compared to pure INH (~ 55%) and INH-SA Ms (~ 80%). The oral bioavailability results indicated that INH-CaSP Ms appreciably improved the oral bioavailability of INH via increasing the Cmax, Tmax, t_1/2, and AUC parameters compared to pure INH. The study demonstrates that the development of INH-CaSP Ms via cross-linked coordinate bond interaction between divalent cation calcium ion-alginate complex and anion piperine bio-enhancer is an effective approach for enhancing the encapsulation efficiency, bio-adhesion, controlled release, and oral bioavailability of INH.

Pellets of phospholipids and D-glucose with improved intestinal absorption and oral bioavailability of salvianolic acid B

Salvianolic acid B (SAB) is a widely used cardioprotective agent, while its clinical application was limited by poor intestinal absorption and low oral bioavailability. In this study, SAB phospholipid complex (SP) was first prepared to improve the lipophicity of SAB and then combined with D-glucose to further enhance intestinal absorption. Compared with free SAB, SP or the mixture of SAB and D-glucose, combination of SP and D-glucose showed higher intestinal absorption evidenced by increased effective permeation coefficient (P_eff) in the in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) assay. Subsequently, SP and D-glucose at mass ratio of 1:6, with the highest P_eff of SAB, were chosen for the preparation of complexed pellets to improve oral absorption efficiency of SAB. As expected, the obtained pellets significantly enhanced oral bioavailability of SAB in the pharmacokinetic study characterized by increasing C_max and AUC_0-t of SAB by 14.88-fold and 5.02-fold than free SAB, respectively. In conclusion, combination of D-glucose in SP pellets can effectively improve the intestinal absorption and oral bioavailability of SAB.

Natural Products as Sources of Multitarget Compounds: Advances in the Development of Ferulic Acid as Multitarget Therapeutic

Nature has provided therapeutic substances for millennia, with many valuable medications derived from plant sources. Multitarget drugs become essential in the management of various disorders including hepatic disorders, neurological disorders, diabetes, and carcinomas. Ferulic acid is a significant potential therapeutic agent, which is easily available at low cost, possesses a low toxicity profile, and has minimum side effects. Ferulic acid exhibits various therapeutic actions by modulation of various signal transduction pathways such as Nrf2, p38, and mTOR. The actions exhibited by ferulic acid include anti-apoptosis, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anticarcinogenic, hepatoprotection, cardioprotection, activation of transcriptional factors, expression of genes, regulation of enzyme activity, and neuroprotection, which further help in treating various pathophysiological conditions such as cancer, skin diseases, brain disorders, diabetes, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, hypoxia, hepatic disorders, H1N1 flu, and viral infections. The current review focuses on the significance of natural products as sources of multitarget compounds and a primary focus has been made on ferulic acid and its mechanism, role, and protective action in various ailments.

Recent Advances in Biological Activity, New Formulations and Prodrugs of Ferulic Acid

Trans-ferulic acid (FA) is a derivative of 4-hydroxycinnamic acid, which is found in many food products, fruits and beverages. It has scientifically proven antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. However, its low ability to permeate through biological barriers (e.g., the blood-brain barrier, BBB), its low bioavailability and its fast elimination from the gastrointestinal tract after oral administration limit its clinical use, e.g., for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, new nanotechnological approaches are developed in order to regulate intracellular transport of ferulic acid. The objective of this review is to summarize the last decade's research on biological properties of ferulic acid and innovative ways of its delivery, supporting pharmacological therapy.

Recent Advancement in Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles for Improved Oral Bioavailability and Bioactivity of Phytochemicals: Challenges and Perspectives

The excellent therapeutic potential of a variety of phytochemicals in different diseases has been proven by extensive studies throughout history. However, most phytochemicals are characterized by a high molecular weight, poor aqueous solubility, limited gastrointestinal permeability, extensive pre-systemic metabolism, and poor stability in the harsh gastrointestinal milieu. Therefore, loading of these phytochemicals in biodegradable and biocompatible nanoparticles (NPs) might be an effective approach to improve their bioactivity. Different nanocarrier systems have been developed in recent decades to deliver phytochemicals. Among them, NPs based on chitosan (CS) (CS-NPs), a mucoadhesive, non-toxic, and biodegradable polysaccharide, are considered the best nanoplatform for the oral delivery of phytochemicals. This review highlights the oral delivery of natural products, i.e., phytochemicals, encapsulated in NPs prepared from a natural polymer, i.e., CS, for improved bioavailability and bioactivity. The unique properties of CS for oral delivery such as its mucoadhesiveness, non-toxicity, excellent stability in the harsh environment of the GIT, good solubility in slightly acidic and alkaline conditions, and ability to enhance intestinal permeability are discussed first, and then the outcomes of various phytochemical-loaded CS-NPs after oral administration are discussed in detail. Furthermore, different challenges associated with the oral delivery of phytochemicals with CS-NPs and future directions are also discussed.

Ferulic acid-loaded nanocapsules: Evaluation of mucosal interaction, safety and antioxidant activity in human mononucleated cells

Ferulic acid (FA) is a phenolic compound that has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic properties besides presenting cytoprotective activity. It has limited oral bioavailability what is a challenge to its therapeutic application. In this way, this investigation aimed to develop FA-loaded nanocapsule suspensions (NC-FA) prepared with ethylcellulose and evaluate their in vitro release profile, mucoadhesion and irritation potential; scavenging capacity, cytotoxicity, cytoprotection and genoprotection against hydrogen peroxide-induced damage in hMNC (human Mononucleated Cells) culture. The nanocapsules presented physicochemical characteristics compatible with colloidal systems (NC-FA: 112 ± 3 nm; NC-B (without FA): 107 ± 3 nm; PdI < 0.2; Span<2.0 and negative zeta potential). In addition, the nanoparticulate system promoted the FA controlled release, increasing the half-life twice through the in vitro dialysis method. NC-FA and NC-B were able to interact with mucin, which is an indicative of mucoadhesive properties and the association of FA with nanocapsules showed decreased irritation by HET-CAM method. Besides, the NC-FA did not present cytotoxicity in hMNC and improved the ATBS radical scavenging capacity. Besides, it prevented, treated and reversed oxidative conditions in a H₂O₂-induced model in hMNC. Thus, this nanocarrier formulation is promising to perform more preclinical investigations focusing on diseases involving oxidative mechanisms.

Antibacterial Effect of Dihydromyricetin on Specific Spoilage Organisms of Hybrid Grouper

This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of antibacterial activity level inhibition of dihydromyricetin (DMY) against specific spoilage bacteria of grouper. Firstly, the specific spoilage bacteria of grouper in the cold storage process are Pseudomonas antarctica (P. antarctica), which are selected by calculating the spoilage metabolite yield factor. It was determined that the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of DMY against grouper spoilage bacteria were 2.0 mg/mL and 6.4 mg/mL, respectively. DMY was added to the matrix of chitosan and sodium alginate, and DMY emulsions of different concentrations (0 MIC, 1 MIC, 2 MIC, 4 MIC) were prepared and characterized by differential calorimetry methods. Through analyzing cell permeability, enzyme activity, and images of the confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM), we further studied the antibacterial mechanism of DMY emulsion on specific spoilage bacteria. The results showed that, with the increase of DMY concentration in the treatment group, the leakage of nucleic acid and protein increased significantly, the activity of ATPase and three critical enzymes in the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway decreased significantly, and the activity of AKPase did not decrease significantly, . The metabolic activity and viability are reduced considerably. Analysis of the above results shows that DMY inhibits the growth and reproduction of P. antarctica by interfering with the metabolic activity of bacteria and destroying the function of bacterial cell membranes but has no inhibitory effect on the activity of AKPase. This study proves that DMY could be an effective and natural antibacterial agent against specific spoilage bacteria in aquatic products.