A review of plant-based expression systems as a platform for single-domain recombinant antibody production

Food-Borne Biotoxin Neutralization in Vivo by Nanobodies: Current Status and Prospects

Food-borne biotoxins from microbes, plants, or animals contaminate unclean, spoiled, and rotten foods, posing significant health risks. Neutralizing such toxins is vital for human health, especially after food poisoning. Nanobodies (Nbs), a type of single-domain antibodies derived from the genetic cloning of a variable domain of heavy chain antibodies (VHHs) in camels, offer unique advantages in toxin neutralization. Their small size, high stability, and precise binding enable effective neutralization. The use of Nbs in neutralizing food-borne biotoxins offers numerous benefits, and their genetic malleability allows tailored optimization for diverse toxins. As nanotechnology continues to evolve and improve, Nbs are poised to become increasingly efficient and safer tools for toxin neutralization, playing a pivotal role in safeguarding human health and environmental safety. This review not only highlights the efficacy of these agents in neutralizing toxins but also proposes innovative solutions to address their current challenges. It lays a solid foundation for their further development in this crucial field and propels their commercial application, thereby contributing significantly to advancements in this domain.

Plant virus-derived nanoparticles decorated with genetically encoded SARS-CoV-2 nanobodies display enhanced neutralizing activity

Viral nanoparticles (VNPs) are a new class of virus-based formulations that can be used as building blocks to implement a variety of functions of potential interest in biotechnology and nanomedicine. Viral coat proteins (CP) that exhibit self-assembly properties are particularly appropriate for displaying antigens and antibodies, by generating multivalent VNPs with therapeutic and diagnostic potential. Here, we developed genetically encoded multivalent VNPs derived from two filamentous plant viruses, potato virus X (PVX) and tobacco etch virus (TEV), which were efficiently and inexpensively produced in the biofactory Nicotiana benthamiana plant. PVX and TEV-derived VNPs were decorated with two different nanobodies recognizing two different regions of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein. The addition of different picornavirus 2A ribosomal skipping peptides between the nanobody and the CP allowed for modulating the degree of VNP decoration. Nanobody-decorated VNPs purified from N. benthamiana tissues successfully recognized the RBD antigen in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and showed efficient neutralization activity against pseudoviruses carrying the Spike protein. Interestingly, multivalent PVX and TEV-derived VNPs exhibited a neutralizing activity approximately one order of magnitude higher than the corresponding nanobody in a dimeric format. These properties, combined with the ability to produce VNP cocktails in the same N. benthamiana plant based on synergistic infection of the parent PVX and TEV, make these green nanomaterials an attractive alternative to standard antibodies for multiple applications in diagnosis and therapeutics.

Protein-imprinted polymers: How far have "plastic antibodies" come?

Antibodies are highly selective and sensitive, making them the gold standard for recognition affinity tools. However, their production cost is high and their downstream processing is time-consuming. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are tailor-made by incorporating specific molecular recognition sites in their structure, thus translating into receptor-like activity mode of action. The interest in molecular imprinting technology, applied to biomacromolecules, has increased in the past decade. MIPs, produced using biomolecules as templates, commonly referred to as "plastic antibodies" or "artificial receptors", have been considered as suitable cheaper and easy to produce alternatives to antibodies. Research on MIPs, designed to recognize proteins or peptides is particularly important, with potential contributions towards biomedical applications, namely biosensors and targeted drug delivery systems. This mini review will cover recent advances on (bio)molecular imprinting technology, where proteins or peptides are targeted or mimicked for sensing and therapeutic applications. Polymerization methods are reviewed elsewhere, being out of the scope of this review. Template selection and immobilization approaches, monomers and applications will be discussed, highlighting possible drawbacks and gaps in research.

Single-domain antibodies applied as antiviral immunotherapeutics

Viral infections have been the cause of high mortality rates throughout different periods in history. Over the last two decades, outbreaks caused by zoonotic diseases and transmitted by arboviruses have had a significant impact on human health. The emergence of viral infections in different parts of the world encourages the search for new inputs to fight pathologies of viral origin. Antibodies represent the predominant class of new drugs developed in recent years and approved for the treatment of various human diseases, including cancer, autoimmune and infectious diseases. A promising group of antibodies are single-domain antibodies derived from camelid heavy chain immunoglobulins, or VHHs, are biomolecules with nanometric dimensions and unique pharmaceutical and biophysical properties that can be used in the diagnosis and immunotherapy of viral infections. For viral neutralization to occur, VHHs can act in different stages of the viral cycle, including the actual inhibition of infection, to hindering viral replication or assembly. This review article addresses advances involving the use of VHHs in therapeutic propositions aimed to battle different viruses that affect human health.

The Plant Viruses and Molecular Farming: How Beneficial They Might Be for Human and Animal Health?

Plant viruses have traditionally been studied as pathogens in the context of understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms of a particular disease affecting crops. In recent years, viruses have emerged as a new alternative for producing biological nanomaterials and chimeric vaccines. Plant viruses were also used to generate highly efficient expression vectors, revolutionizing plant molecular farming (PMF). Several biological products, including recombinant vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, diagnostic reagents, and other pharmaceutical products produced in plants, have passed their clinical trials and are in their market implementation stage. PMF offers opportunities for fast, adaptive, and low-cost technology to meet ever-growing and critical global health needs. In this review, we summarized the advancements in the virus-like particles-based (VLPs-based) nanotechnologies and the role they played in the production of advanced vaccines, drugs, diagnostic bio-nanomaterials, and other bioactive cargos. We also highlighted various applications and advantages plant-produced vaccines have and their relevance for treating human and animal illnesses. Furthermore, we summarized the plant-based biologics that have passed through clinical trials, the unique challenges they faced, and the challenges they will face to qualify, become available, and succeed on the market.

Optimising expression and extraction of recombinant proteins in plants

Recombinant proteins are of paramount importance for research, industrial and medical use. Numerous expression chassis are available for recombinant protein production, and while bacterial and mammalian cell cultures are the most widely used, recent developments have positioned transgenic plant chassis as viable and often preferential options. Plant chassis are easily maintained at low cost, are hugely scalable, and capable of producing large quantities of protein bearing complex post-translational modification. Several protein targets, including antibodies and vaccines against human disease, have been successfully produced in plants, highlighting the significant potential of plant chassis. The aim of this review is to act as a guide to producing recombinant protein in plants, discussing recent progress in the field and summarising the factors that must be considered when utilising plants as recombinant protein expression systems, with a focus on optimising recombinant protein expression at the genetic level, and the subsequent extraction and purification of target proteins, which can lead to substantial improvements in protein stability, yield and purity.

The Roles of Optogenetics and Technology in Neurobiology: A Review

Optogenetic is a technique that combines optics and genetics to control specific neurons. This technique usually uses adenoviruses that encode photosensitive protein. The adenovirus may concentrate in a specific neural region. By shining light on the target nerve region, the photosensitive protein encoded by the adenovirus is controlled. Photosensitive proteins controlled by light can selectively allow ions inside and outside the cell membrane to pass through, resulting in inhibition or activation effects. Due to the high precision and minimally invasive, optogenetics has achieved good results in many fields, especially in the field of neuron functions and neural circuits. Significant advances have also been made in the study of many clinical diseases. This review focuses on the research of optogenetics in the field of neurobiology. These include how to use optogenetics to control nerve cells, study neural circuits, and treat diseases by changing the state of neurons. We hoped that this review will give a comprehensive understanding of the progress of optogenetics in the field of neurobiology.

Production of Potyvirus-Derived Nanoparticles Decorated with a Nanobody in Biofactory Plants

Viral nanoparticles (VNPs) have recently attracted attention for their use as building blocks for novel materials to support a range of functions of potential interest in nanotechnology and medicine. Viral capsids are ideal for presenting small epitopes by inserting them at an appropriate site on the selected coat protein (CP). VNPs presenting antibodies on their surfaces are considered highly promising tools for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. Due to their size, nanobodies are an interesting alternative to classic antibodies for surface presentation. Nanobodies are the variable domains of heavy-chain (VHH) antibodies from animals belonging to the family Camelidae, which have several properties that make them attractive therapeutic molecules, such as their small size, simple structure, and high affinity and specificity. In this work, we have produced genetically encoded VNPs derived from two different potyviruses—the largest group of RNA viruses that infect plants—decorated with nanobodies. We have created a VNP derived from zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) decorated with a nanobody against the green fluorescent protein (GFP) in zucchini (Cucurbita pepo) plants. As reported for other viruses, the expression of ZYMV-derived VNPs decorated with this nanobody was only made possible by including a picornavirus 2A splicing peptide between the fused proteins, which resulted in a mixed population of unmodified and decorated CPs. We have also produced tobacco etch virus (TEV)-derived VNPs in Nicotiana benthamiana plants decorated with the same nanobody against GFP. Strikingly, in this case, VNPs could be assembled by direct fusion of the nanobody to the viral CP with no 2A splicing involved, likely resulting in fully decorated VNPs. For both expression systems, correct assembly and purification of the recombinant VNPs was confirmed by transmission electron microscope; the functionality of the CP-fused nanobody was assessed by western blot and binding assays. In sum, here we report the production of genetically encoded plant-derived VNPs decorated with a nanobody. This system may be an attractive alternative for the sustainable production in plants of nanobody-containing nanomaterials for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.