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Suo F, Bai X, Liu Y, Xu M, Gu T, Cao L, Lv X, Zhang X, Yao Y. Development of lignin-based 3D-printable light responsive shape memory materials: Design of optically controlled devices. Int J Biol Macromol 2024:132943. [PMID: 38852723 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.132943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
This study employs simple approaches involving melt blending and Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing to fabricate a light-responsive shape memory composite. And, this composite material is used for the design of optically controlled devices that mimics the blooming of flowers in the natural environment. The composite material utilizes poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) as the matrix, with lignin (L) serving as a functional filler. The analysis indicates that, due to the excellent photothermal conversion efficiency of lignin, under constant illumination the shape memory materials heat up to 50 °C within 40 s, the shape recovery rate exceeds 95.06 %. Lignin ameliorated the rheological deficiencies of TPU, with the composite material viscosity decreasing from 103 to 101 at an angular frequency of 100 rad/s, enhancing its compatibility with FDM processes. This research offers greater economic efficiency compared to conventional light-responsive materials and a simpler production method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Suo
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science and Technology (Ministry of Education), Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Xin Bai
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science and Technology (Ministry of Education), Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Yongzhuang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science and Technology (Ministry of Education), Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Min Xu
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science and Technology (Ministry of Education), Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Tongfei Gu
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science and Technology (Ministry of Education), Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Lei Cao
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science and Technology (Ministry of Education), Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Xiaoyang Lv
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science and Technology (Ministry of Education), Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Xianquan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science and Technology (Ministry of Education), Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China.
| | - Yongtao Yao
- Center for Composite Materials and Structures, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150080, China.
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2
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Chandna S, Olivares M CA, Baranovskii E, Engelmann G, Böker A, Tzschucke CC, Haag R. Lignin Upconversion by Functionalization and Network Formation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202313945. [PMID: 37830521 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202313945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Lignin, a complex and abundant biopolymer derived from plant cell walls, has emerged as a promising feedstock for sustainable material development. Due to the high abundance of phenylpropanoid units, aromatic rings, and hydroxyl groups, lignin is an ideal candidate for being explored in various material applications. Therefore, the demand on lignin valorization for development of value-added products is significantly increasing. This mini-review provides an overview of lignin upconversion, focusing on its functionalization through chemical and enzymatic routes, and its application in lignin-based polymer resins, hydrogels, and nanomaterials. The functionalization of lignin molecules with various chemical groups offers tailored properties and increased compatibility with other materials, expanding its potential applications. Additionally, the formation of lignin-based networks, either through cross-linking or blending with polymers, generates novel materials with improved mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties. However, challenges remain in optimizing functionalization techniques, preserving the innate complexity of lignin, and achieving scalability for industrial implementation. As lignin's potential continues to be unlocked, it is poised to contribute significantly to the shift towards more eco-friendly and resource-efficient industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjam Chandna
- Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carmen A Olivares M
- Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Egor Baranovskii
- Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gunnar Engelmann
- Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Polymerforschung (IAP), Geiselbergstrasse 69, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Alexander Böker
- Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Polymerforschung (IAP), Geiselbergstrasse 69, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - C Christoph Tzschucke
- Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Rainer Haag
- Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
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3
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Staszczak M, Urbański L, Cristea M, Ionita D, Pieczyska EA. Investigation of Shape Memory Polyurethane Properties in Cold Programming Process Towards Its Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:219. [PMID: 38257020 PMCID: PMC10819366 DOI: 10.3390/polym16020219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Thermoresponsive shape memory polymers (SMPs) with the remarkable ability to remember a temporary shape and recover their original one using temperature have been gaining more and more attention in a wide range of applications. Traditionally, SMPs are investigated using a method named often "hot-programming", since they are heated above their glass transition temperature (Tg) and after that, reshaped and cooled below Tg to achieve and fix the desired configuration. Upon reheating, these materials return to their original shape. However, the heating of SMPs above their Tg during a thermomechanical cycle to trigger a change in their shape creates a temperature gradient within the material structure and causes significant thermal expansion of the polymer sample resulting in a reduction in its shape recovery property. These phenomena, in turn, limit the application fields of SMPs, in which fast actuation, dimensional stability and low thermal expansion coefficient are crucial. This paper aims at a comprehensive experimental investigation of thermoplastic polyurethane shape memory polymer (PU-SMP) using the cold programming approach, in which the deformation of the SMP into the programmed shape is conducted at temperatures below Tg. The PU-SMP glass transition temperature equals approximately 65 °C. Structural, mechanical and thermomechanical characterization was performed, and the results on the identification of functional properties of PU-SMPs in quite a large strain range beyond yield limit were obtained. The average shape fixity ratio of the PU-SMP at room temperature programming was found to be approximately 90%, while the average shape fixity ratio at 45 °C (Tg - 20 °C) was approximately 97%. Whereas, the average shape recovery ratio was 93% at room temperature programming and it was equal to approximately 90% at 45 °C. However, the results obtained using the traditional method, the so-called hot programming at 65 °C, indicate a higher shape fixity value of 98%, but a lower shape recovery of 90%. Thus, the obtained results confirmed good shape memory properties of the PU-SMPs at a large strain range at various temperatures. Furthermore, the experiments conducted at both temperatures below Tg demonstrated that cold programming can be successfully applied to PU-SMPs with a relatively high Tg. Knowledge of the PU-SMP shape memory and shape fixity properties, estimated without risk of material degradation, caused by heating above Tg, makes them attractive for various applications, e.g., in electronic components, aircraft or aerospace structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Staszczak
- Institute of Fundamental Technological Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland; (M.S.); (L.U.)
| | - Leszek Urbański
- Institute of Fundamental Technological Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland; (M.S.); (L.U.)
| | - Mariana Cristea
- “Petru Poni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 700487 Iasi, Romania; (M.C.); (D.I.)
| | - Daniela Ionita
- “Petru Poni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 700487 Iasi, Romania; (M.C.); (D.I.)
| | - Elżbieta Alicja Pieczyska
- Institute of Fundamental Technological Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland; (M.S.); (L.U.)
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4
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Ren Z, Zhou X, Ding K, Ji T, Sun H, Chi X, Wei Y, Xu M, Cai L, Xia C. Design of sustainable 3D printable polylactic acid composites with high lignin content. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 253:127264. [PMID: 37804892 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we report the development of a sustainable polymer system with 50 wt% lignin content, suitable for additive manufacturing and high value-added utilization of lignin. The plasticized polylactic acid (PLA) was incorporated with lignin to develop the bendable and malleable green composites with excellent 3D printing adaptability. The biocomposites exhibit increases of 765.54 % and 125.27 % in both elongation and toughness, respectively. The plasticizer enhances the dispersion of lignin and the molecular mobility of the PLA chains. The good dispersion of lignin particles within the structure and the reduction of chemical cross-linking promote the local relaxation of the polymer chains. The good local relaxation of the polymer chains and the high flexibility allow to obtain a better integration between the printed layers with good printability. This research demonstrates the promising potential of this composite system for sustainable manufacturing and provides insights into novel material design for high-value applications of lignin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zechun Ren
- Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Xinyuan Zhou
- Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Kejiao Ding
- Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Tong Ji
- Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Hao Sun
- Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Xiang Chi
- Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Yunzhao Wei
- Institute of Petrochemistry, Heilongjiang, Academy of Sciences, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Min Xu
- Material Science and Engineering College, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China.
| | - Liping Cai
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Changlei Xia
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
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5
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Taher MA, Wang X, Faridul Hasan KM, Miah MR, Zhu J, Chen J. Lignin Modification for Enhanced Performance of Polymer Composites. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2023; 6:5169-5192. [PMID: 38036466 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.3c00783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
The biopolymer lignin, which is heterogeneous and abundant, is usually present in plant cell walls and gives them rigidity and strength. As a byproduct of the wood, paper, and pulp manufacturing industry, lignin ranks as the second most prevalent biopolymer worldwide, following cellulose. This review paper explores the extraction, modification, and prospective applications of lignin in various industries, including the enhancement of thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers, biomedical applications such as vanillin production, fuel development, carbon fiber composites, and the creation of nanomaterials for food packaging and drug delivery. The structural characteristics of lignin remain undefined due to its origin, separation, and fragmentation processes. This comprehensive overview encompasses state-of-the-art techniques, potential applications, diverse extraction methods, chemical modifications, carbon fiber utilization, and the extraction of vanillin. Moreover, the review focuses on the utilization of lignin-modified polymer blends across multiple manufacturing sectors, providing insights into the advantages and limitations of this innovative approach for the development of environmentally friendly materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Abu Taher
- Key Laboratory of Bio-based Polymeric Materials Technology and Application of Zhejiang Province, Divisions of Polymers and Composites, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Xiaolin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-based Polymeric Materials Technology and Application of Zhejiang Province, Divisions of Polymers and Composites, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, P. R. China
| | | | - Mohammad Raza Miah
- Key Laboratory of Bio-based Polymeric Materials Technology and Application of Zhejiang Province, Divisions of Polymers and Composites, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Jin Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Bio-based Polymeric Materials Technology and Application of Zhejiang Province, Divisions of Polymers and Composites, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, P. R. China
| | - Jing Chen
- Key Laboratory of Bio-based Polymeric Materials Technology and Application of Zhejiang Province, Divisions of Polymers and Composites, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, P. R. China
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Ren Y, Song X, Chen Y, Xin W, Zhu C, Huang Y, Tian N, Huang Y. Self-Healing of Poly(vinyl Alcohol)/Poly(acrylic Acid)-Polytetrahydrofuran-Poly(acrylic Acid) Blend Boosted via Shape Memory. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2023; 39:14811-14821. [PMID: 37791913 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c02324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/05/2023]
Abstract
The self-healable polymers that can repair physical damage autonomously to extend their lifetime and reduce maintenance costs are promising intelligent materials. However, utilizing shape memory to facilitate self-repair is unusual at present. In this work, a series of poly(acrylic acid)-polytetrahydrofuran-poly(acrylic acid) polymers (PAA-PTMG-PAA, diPAA-PTMG) are synthesized as a switching phase and healing accelerator to blend into poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA). The water swelling rate of the blend is up to 400.0% at 1/1 molecular weight ratio of PTMG/PAA and 20.0 wt % blend ratio of diPAA-PTMG to PVA, and its crystallization is changed significantly under wet conditions. The blend membrane exhibits not only a good hydrothermal-response shape memory effect but also a favorable self-healing behavior. The tensile strength and elongation at break are 12.4 MPa and 320.0% after healing at 25 °C, respectively. In particular, the wound membrane can achieve a better self-healing effect with the assistance of shape memory at 37 °C, and the elongation at the break increased to 515.9% after healing. The membrane is not cytotoxic, so it will be a promising biomedical material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajun Ren
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
- School of Engineering, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China
| | - Xiaofeng Song
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Youhua Chen
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Wen Xin
- School of Engineering, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China
| | - Chuanming Zhu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Yuan Huang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Na Tian
- School of Engineering, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China
| | - Yuling Huang
- School of Engineering, Jilin Normal University, Siping 136000, China
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7
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Balk M, Sofia P, Neffe AT, Tirelli N. Lignin, the Lignification Process, and Advanced, Lignin-Based Materials. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11668. [PMID: 37511430 PMCID: PMC10380785 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
At a time when environmental considerations are increasingly pushing for the application of circular economy concepts in materials science, lignin stands out as an under-used but promising and environmentally benign building block. This review focuses (A) on understanding what we mean with lignin, i.e., where it can be found and how it is produced in plants, devoting particular attention to the identity of lignols (including ferulates that are instrumental for integrating lignin with cell wall polysaccharides) and to the details of their coupling reactions and (B) on providing an overview how lignin can actually be employed as a component of materials in healthcare and energy applications, finally paying specific attention to the use of lignin in the development of organic shape-memory materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Balk
- Institute of Functional Materials for Sustainability, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Kantstrasse 55, 14513 Teltow, Germany
| | - Pietro Sofia
- Laboratory of Polymers and Biomaterials, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
- The Open University Affiliated Research Centre at the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (ARC@IIT), Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
| | - Axel T Neffe
- Institute of Functional Materials for Sustainability, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Kantstrasse 55, 14513 Teltow, Germany
| | - Nicola Tirelli
- Laboratory of Polymers and Biomaterials, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
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Jin X, Li X, Liu X, Du L, Su L, Ma Y, Ren S. Simple lignin-based, light-driven shape memory polymers with excellent mechanical properties and wide range of glass transition temperatures. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 228:528-536. [PMID: 36549626 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Lignin is the most abundant biomass source of aromatic hydrocarbons but, at present, is not effectively utilized. The development of simple and efficient methods for producing lignin-based polymers to replace petroleum-based products is an important strategy for promoting environmentally friendly and sustainable materials and controlling carbon emissions. In this work, lignin-based, light-driven shape memory polymers (ELIDs) with improved mechanical properties have been prepared from enzymatic hydrolysis lignin, itaconic acid and 1,12-dodecanediol, without any chemical modification of the lignin. The polymers contain large proportions of lignin (20-40 wt%, designated ELID20 to ELID40) and their mechanical properties are dependent on the lignin content. Maximum tensile strength (46.9 MPa) was achieved with ELID30, maximum elongation at break (93.7 %) was achieved with ELID20 and highest fracture energy (10.75 J cm-3) was achieved with ELID25. These excellent mechanical properties are accompanied by good thermal stability and a wide range of glass transition temperatures (21.2-157.3 °C), supporting a broad range of applications. The shape fixation rate (Rf) and shape recovery rate (Rr) were highest for ELID30 (98.7 % and 97.4 %, respectively). Under 1 sun simulated solar irradiation, ELID20 reached a temperature exceeding the glass transition temperature in 15 s and, under 3 sun simulated solar irradiation, ELID30 reached a temperature of 130 °C and shape recovered in 60 s. The excellent mechanical properties and good light-driven shape memory of ELIDs provide inspiration for the development and utilization of lignin-based polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Jin
- Key Laboratory of Bio-based Material Science & Technology (Northeast Forestry University), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, PR China; College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, PR China
| | - Xiaowen Li
- College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, PR China
| | - Xuan Liu
- College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, PR China
| | - Liuping Du
- Key Laboratory of Bio-based Material Science & Technology (Northeast Forestry University), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, PR China; College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, PR China
| | - Ling Su
- Yantai Vocational College, Yantai City 264670, PR China
| | - Yanli Ma
- Key Laboratory of Bio-based Material Science & Technology (Northeast Forestry University), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, PR China; College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, PR China
| | - Shixue Ren
- Key Laboratory of Bio-based Material Science & Technology (Northeast Forestry University), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, PR China; College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, PR China.
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9
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More A, Elder T, Pajer N, Argyropoulos DS, Jiang Z. Novel and Integrated Process for the Valorization of Kraft Lignin to Produce Lignin-Containing Vitrimers. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:1097-1108. [PMID: 36643463 PMCID: PMC9835646 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c06445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The valorization of lignin into value-added products by oxidative conversion is a widely studied strategy. However, in many cases, this approach has limited scope for integration into industrial processes. The objective of our work is to maximize overall lignin utilization to produce diverse value-added products with a focus on integration in the existing industrial pulp and paper processes. The utilization of the sequential oxidation strategy using oxygen and ozone resulted in kraft lignin with a marked improvement in carboxyl content and also allowed the formation of vanillin and vanillic acid in the oxygen stage. The sequentially oxidized lignin (OxL-COOH) was then cured with poly(ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether (PEG-epoxy) to form high-lignin-content (>48 wt %) vitrimers with high thermal stability, fast relaxation, swelling, and self-healing due to the presence of bond-exchangeable cross-linked networks. Overall, this study provides a novel approach for the multidimensional valorization of lignin and demonstrates an integrated approach for kraft lignin valorization in the pulp and paper industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajinkya More
- Alabama
Center for Paper and Bioresource Engineering (AC-PABE), Department
of Chemical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama36849, United States
| | - Thomas Elder
- United
States Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest
Service, Southern Research
Station, Auburn, Alabama36849, United States
| | - Nicolò Pajer
- Department
of Molecular Sciences and Nanosystems, Ca’
Foscari University of Venice, Via Torino 155, Venezia, Mestre30172, Italy
| | - Dimitris S. Argyropoulos
- Department
of Forest Biomaterials, NC State University, Campus Box 8005, Raleigh, North Carolina27695-8005, United States
| | - Zhihua Jiang
- Alabama
Center for Paper and Bioresource Engineering (AC-PABE), Department
of Chemical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama36849, United States
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