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Zhao H, Zhao P, Huang C. Targeted inhibition of SUMOylation: treatment of tumors. Hum Cell 2024; 37:1347-1354. [PMID: 38856883 DOI: 10.1007/s13577-024-01092-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
SUMOylation is a dynamic and reversible post-translational modification (PTM) of proteins involved in the regulation of biological processes such as protein homeostasis, DNA repair and cell cycle in normal and tumor cells. In particular, overexpression of SUMOylation components in tumor cells increases the activity of intracellular SUMOylation, protects target proteins against ubiquitination degradation and activation, promoting tumor cell proliferation and metastasis, providing immune evasion and increasing tolerance to chemotherapy and antitumor drugs. However, with the continuous research on SUMOylation and with the continued development of SUMOylation inhibitors, it has been found that tumor initiation and progression can be inhibited by blocking SUMOylation and/or in combination with drugs. SUMOylation is not a bad target when trying to treat tumor. This review introduces SUMOylation cycle pathway and summarizes the role of SUMOylation in tumor initiation and progression and SUMOylation inhibitors and their functions in tumors and provides a prospective view of SUMOylation as a new therapeutic target for tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongwei Zhao
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Department of Medicine, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
| | - Panpan Zhao
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Department of Medicine, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
| | - Chao Huang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Department of Medicine, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China.
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2
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Kar A, Mukherjee S, Mukherjee S, Biswas A. Ubiquitin: A double-edged sword in hepatitis B virus-induced hepatocellular carcinoma. Virology 2024; 599:110199. [PMID: 39116646 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2024.110199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2024] [Revised: 07/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus is one of the leading causes behind the neoplastic transformation of liver tissue and associated mortality. Despite the availability of many therapies and vaccines, the pathogenic landscape of the virus remains elusive; urging the development of novel strategies based on the fundamental infectious and transformative modalities of the virus-host interactome. Ubiquitination is a widely observed post-translational modification of several proteins, which either regulates the proteins' turnover or impacts their functionalities. In recent years, ample amount of literature has accumulated regarding the ubiquitination dynamics of the HBV proteins as well as the host proteins during HBV infection and carcinogenesis; with direct and detailed characterization of the involvement of HBV in these processes. Interestingly, while many of these ubiquitination events restrict HBV life cycle and carcinogenesis, several others promote the emergence of hepatocarcinoma by putting the virus in an advantageous position. This review sums up the snowballing literature on ubiquitination-mediated regulation of the host-HBV crosstalk, with special emphasis on its influence on the establishment and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma on a molecular level. With the advent of cutting-edge ubiquitination-targeted therapeutic approaches, the findings emanating from this review may potentiate the identification of novel anti-HBV targets for the formulation of novel anticancer strategies to control the HBV-induced hepato-carcinogenic process on a global scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpita Kar
- Department of Signal Transduction & Biogenic Amines, Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata, India
| | - Sandipan Mukherjee
- Department of Signal Transduction & Biogenic Amines, Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata, India
| | - Soumyadeep Mukherjee
- Department of in Vitro Carcinogenesis and Cellular Chemotherapy, Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata, India
| | - Avik Biswas
- Department of Signal Transduction & Biogenic Amines, Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata, India.
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3
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Hu Q, Liu Z, Liu Y, Qiu J, Zhang X, Sun J, Zhang B, Shi H. SIAH2 suppresses c-JUN pathway by promoting the polyubiquitination and degradation of HBx in hepatocellular carcinoma. J Cell Mol Med 2024; 28:e18484. [PMID: 38842124 PMCID: PMC11154841 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.18484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
As an important protein encoded by hepatitis B virus (HBV), HBV X protein (HBx) plays an important role in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). It has been shown that seven in absentia homologue 1 (SIAH1) could regulates the degradation of HBx through the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. However, as a member of SIAH family, the regulatory effects of SIAH2 on HBx remain unclear. In this study, we first confirmed that SIAH2 could reduce the protein levels of HBx depending on its E3 ligase activity. Moreover, SIAH2 interacted with HBx and induced its K48-linked polyubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Furthermore, we provided evidence that SIAH2 inhibits HBx-associated HCC cells proliferation by regulating HBx. In conclusion, our study identified a novel role for SIAH2 in promoting HBx degradation and SIAH2 exerts an inhibitory effect in the proliferation of HBx-associated HCC through inducing the degradation of HBx. Our study provides a new idea for the targeted degradation of HBx and may have great huge significance into providing novel evidence for the targeted therapy of HBV-infected HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinghe Hu
- Institute of Digestive DiseasesXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Research Center of Digestive DiseasesThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Department of General SurgeryThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
| | - Zhiyi Liu
- Institute of Digestive DiseasesXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Research Center of Digestive DiseasesThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Department of General SurgeryThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
| | - Yao Liu
- Institute of Digestive DiseasesXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Research Center of Digestive DiseasesThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Department of General SurgeryThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
| | - Jie Qiu
- Institute of Digestive DiseasesXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Research Center of Digestive DiseasesThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Department of General SurgeryThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
| | - Xue Zhang
- Institute of Digestive DiseasesXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Research Center of Digestive DiseasesThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Department of General SurgeryThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
| | - Jun Sun
- Institute of Digestive DiseasesXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Research Center of Digestive DiseasesThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Department of General SurgeryThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
| | - Bin Zhang
- Institute of Digestive DiseasesXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Research Center of Digestive DiseasesThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Department of General SurgeryThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
| | - Hengliang Shi
- Institute of Digestive DiseasesXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Research Center of Digestive DiseasesThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Department of General SurgeryThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
- Central LaboratoryThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouJiangsuChina
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4
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Yang Y, Yu F. Abnormal protein SUMOylation in liver disease: novel target for therapy. J Mol Med (Berl) 2024; 102:719-731. [PMID: 38565749 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-024-02440-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 03/10/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
SUMOylation is an important protein post-translational modification (PTM) process, in which the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) protein covalently binds to the target protein and regulates stability, subcellular localization, and protein-protein interaction of the target protein. Protein SUMOylation exerts crucial regulatory function in the liver, and its abnormalities are associated with various liver-related disease processes. This review focuses on the biological functions of protein SUMOylation in liver-related diseases in recent years, summarizes the molecular mechanisms of SUMOylation in the replication of hepatitis viruses and the occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma, and discusses the significance of SUMOylation in liver-related disorders, which is essential for understanding liver biological processes and formulating therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanfang Yang
- Department of Central Laboratory, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, 550002, China.
- NHC Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Immunological Diseases, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, 550002, China.
| | - Fuxun Yu
- Department of Central Laboratory, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, 550002, China.
- NHC Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Immunological Diseases, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, 550002, China.
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5
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Yang R, Yang C, Su D, Song Y, Min J, Qian Z, Shen X, Li J, Su H. METTL3-mediated RanGAP1 promotes colorectal cancer progression through the MAPK pathway by recruiting YTHDF1. Cancer Gene Ther 2024; 31:562-573. [PMID: 38267624 PMCID: PMC11016466 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-024-00731-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Ran GTPase activating protein 1 (RanGAP1) has been implicated in various diseases, but its role in colorectal cancer (CRC) progression remains unclear. Using tumor tissues and public databases, we found that RanGAP1 was significantly upregulated in CRC tissues and was associated with poor prognosis of patients. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) was found to play an important role in higher expression of RanGAP1. MeRIP-seq, RIP-qPCR, Luciferase reporter assays and other related experiment elucidated the molecular mechanism underlying m6A modification of RanGAP1. Besides, cell function experiments and xenograft tumor models corroborated the function of RanGAP1 in CRC progression. By RNA-seq and related analysis, RanGAP1 was verified to influent CRC progression via the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. Therefore, N6-methyladenosine modification of RanGAP1 by METTL3/YTHDF1 plays a role in CRC progression through the MAPK pathway and could be a potential biomarker and therapeutic target for CRC. Schematic diagram showed that N6-methyladenosine modification of RanGAP1 promotes CRC progression via the MAPK signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Yang
- Department of Oncology, Tangdu Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Cheng Yang
- Department of Oncology, Tangdu Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Danjie Su
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tangdu Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yang Song
- Department of Oncology, Tangdu Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jie Min
- Department of Oncology, Tangdu Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhixin Qian
- Department of Oncology, Tangdu Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiangjing Shen
- Department of Oncology, Tangdu Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Junqiang Li
- Department of Oncology, Tangdu Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Haichuan Su
- Department of Oncology, Tangdu Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China.
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6
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You HJ, Ma LH, Wang X, Wang YX, Zhang HY, Bao ES, Zhong YJ, Liu XY, Kong DL, Zheng KY, Kong FY, Tang RX. Hepatitis B virus core protein stabilizes RANGAP1 to upregulate KDM2A and facilitate hepatocarcinogenesis. Cell Oncol (Dordr) 2024; 47:639-655. [PMID: 37845585 DOI: 10.1007/s13402-023-00889-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE As a vital component of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) nucleocapsid, HBV core protein (HBC) contributes to hepatocarcinogenesis. Here, we aimed to assess the effects of RANGAP1 and KDM2A on tumorigenesis induced by HBC. METHODS Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) combined with mass spectrometry were utilized to identify the proteins with the capacity to interact with HBC. The gene and protein levels of RANGAP1 and KDM2A in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and HBV-positive HCC tissues were evaluated using different cohorts. The roles of RANGAP1 and KDM2A in HCC cells mediated by HBC were investigated in vitro and in vivo. Co-IP and western blot were used to estimate the interaction of HBC with RANGAP1 and KDM2A and assess RANGAP1 stabilization regulated by HBC. RESULTS We discovered that HBC could interact with RANGAP1 and KDM2A, the levels of which were markedly elevated in HCC tissues. Relying on RANGAP1 and KDM2A, HBC facilitated HCC cell growth and migration. The increased stabilization of RANGAP1 mediated by HBC was relevant to the disruption of the interaction between RANGAP1 and an E3 ligase SYVN1. RANGAP1 interacted with KDM2A, and it further promoted KDM2A stabilization by disturbing the interaction between KDM2A and SYVN1. HBC enhanced the interaction of KDM2A with RANGAP1 and upregulated the expression of KDM2A via RANGAP1 in HCC cells. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate a novel mechanism by which HBC facilitates hepatocarcinogenesis. RANGAP1 and KDM2A could act as potential molecular targets for treating HBV-associated malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Juan You
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Li-Hong Ma
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xing Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yu-Xin Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Huan-Yang Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - En-Si Bao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yu-Jie Zhong
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiang-Ye Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - De-Long Kong
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Kui-Yang Zheng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Basic Medical Sciences Education, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fan-Yun Kong
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Ren-Xian Tang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Basic Medical Sciences Education, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.
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7
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Nevola R, Beccia D, Rosato V, Ruocco R, Mastrocinque D, Villani A, Perillo P, Imbriani S, Delle Femine A, Criscuolo L, Alfano M, La Montagna M, Russo A, Marfella R, Cozzolino D, Sasso FC, Rinaldi L, Marrone A, Adinolfi LE, Claar E. HBV Infection and Host Interactions: The Role in Viral Persistence and Oncogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087651. [PMID: 37108816 PMCID: PMC10145402 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a major cause of chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Despite the advent of vaccines and potent antiviral agents able to suppress viral replication, recovery from chronic HBV infection is still an extremely difficult goal to achieve. Complex interactions between virus and host are responsible for HBV persistence and the risk of oncogenesis. Through multiple pathways, HBV is able to silence both innate and adaptive immunological responses and become out of control. Furthermore, the integration of the viral genome into that of the host and the production of covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) represent reservoirs of viral persistence and account for the difficult eradication of the infection. An adequate knowledge of the virus-host interaction mechanisms responsible for viral persistence and the risk of hepatocarcinogenesis is necessary for the development of functional cures for chronic HBV infection. The purpose of this review is, therefore, to analyze how interactions between HBV and host concur in the mechanisms of infection, persistence, and oncogenesis and what are the implications and the therapeutic perspectives that follow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Nevola
- Liver Unit, Ospedale Evangelico Betania, 80147 Naples, Italy
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Domenico Beccia
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Valerio Rosato
- Liver Unit, Ospedale Evangelico Betania, 80147 Naples, Italy
| | - Rachele Ruocco
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | | | - Angela Villani
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | | | - Simona Imbriani
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Augusto Delle Femine
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Livio Criscuolo
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Alfano
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Marco La Montagna
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Antonio Russo
- Department of Mental Health and Public Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Raffaele Marfella
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Domenico Cozzolino
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Ferdinando Carlo Sasso
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Luca Rinaldi
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Aldo Marrone
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Luigi Elio Adinolfi
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Ernesto Claar
- Liver Unit, Ospedale Evangelico Betania, 80147 Naples, Italy
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8
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Relevance of HBx for Hepatitis B Virus-Associated Pathogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24054964. [PMID: 36902395 PMCID: PMC10003785 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The hepatitis B virus (HBV) counts as a major global health problem, as it presents a significant causative factor for liver-related morbidity and mortality. The development of hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC) as a characteristic of a persistent, chronic infection could be caused, among others, by the pleiotropic function of the viral regulatory protein HBx. The latter is known to modulate an onset of cellular and viral signaling processes with emerging influence in liver pathogenesis. However, the flexible and multifunctional nature of HBx impedes the fundamental understanding of related mechanisms and the development of associated diseases, and has even led to partial controversial results in the past. Based on the cellular distribution of HBx-nuclear-, cytoplasmic- or mitochondria-associated-this review encompasses the current knowledge and previous investigations of HBx in context of cellular signaling pathways and HBV-associated pathogenesis. In addition, particular focus is set on the clinical relevance and potential novel therapeutic applications in the context of HBx.
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