The major Alternaria alternata allergen, Alt a 1: A reliable and specific marker of fungal contamination in citrus fruits

Antagonistic properties of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum MYSVB1 against Alternaria alternata: a putative probiotic strain isolated from the banyan tree fruit

Alternaria alternata, a notorious phytopathogenic fungus, has been documented to infect several plant species, leading to the loss of agricultural commodities and resulting in significant economic losses. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) hold immense promise as biocontrol candidates. However, the potential of LABs derived from fruits remains largely unexplored. In this study, several LABs were isolated from tropical fruit and assessed for their probiotic and antifungal properties. A total of fifty-five LABs were successfully isolated from seven distinct fruits. Among these, seven isolates showed inhibition to growth of A. alternata. Two strains, isolated from fruits: Ficus benghalensis, and Tinospora cordifolia exhibited promising antifungal properties against A. alternata. Molecular identification confirmed their identities as Lactiplantibacillus plantarum MYSVB1 and MYSVA7, respectively. Both strains showed adaptability to a wide temperature range (10-45°C), and salt concentrations (up to 7%), with optimal growth around 37 °C and high survival rates under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Among these two strains, Lpb. plantarum MYSVB1 demonstrated significant inhibition (p < 0.01) of the growth of A. alternata. The inhibitory effects of cell-free supernatant (CFS) were strong, with 5% crude CFS sufficient to reduce fungal growth by >70% and complete inhibition by 10% CFS. Moreover, the CFS was inhibitory for both mycelial growth and conidial germination. CFS retained its activity even after long cold storage. The chromatographic analysis identified organic acids in CFS, with succinic acid as the predominant constituent, with lactic acid, and malic acid in descending order. LAB strains isolated from tropical fruits showed promising probiotic and antifungal properties, making them potential candidates for various applications in food and agriculture.

Characterization and toxicological potential of Alternaria alternata associated with post-harvest fruit rot of Prunus avium in China

Post-harvest fruit rot caused by Alternaria species is one of the most important threats to the fruit industry. Post-harvest rot on sweet cherry (Prunus avium) fruit was observed in the fruit markets of the Haidian district of Beijing, China. The fungal isolates obtained from the infected sweet cherry fruits matched the descriptions of Alternaria alternata based on the morphology and multi-gene (ITS, endo-PG, and Alta1) sequence analysis. Pathogenicity tests indicated that ACT-3 was the most virulent isolate, exhibiting typical post-harvest fruit rot symptoms. Physiological studies revealed that the optimal conditions for the growth of ACT-3 were temperature of 28°C, water activity of 0.999, and pH of 8 with 87, 85, and 86 mm radial growth of ACT-3 on a potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium, respectively, at 12 days post-inoculation (dpi). Moreover, the fungus showed the highest growth on a Martin agar medium (MAM) modified (85 mm) and a PDA medium (84 mm) at 12 dpi. The proliferation of the fungus was visualized inside the fruit tissues by confocal and scanning electron microscope (SEM), revealing the invasion and destruction of fruit tissues. Alternaria mycotoxins, tenuazonic acid (TeA), and alternariol (AOH) were detected in five representative isolates by HPLC analysis. The highest concentrations of TeA (313 μg/mL) and AOH (8.9 μg/mL) were observed in ACT-6 and ACT-3 isolates, respectively. This study is the first to present a detailed report on the characteristics and proliferation of A. alternata associated with sweet cherry fruit rot and the detection of toxic metabolites.

Assessment of Resistance Induction in Mungbean against Alternaria alternata through RNA Interference

A comprehensive survey of mungbean-growing areas was conducted to observe leaf spot disease caused by Alternaria alternata. Alternaria leaf spot symptoms were observed on the leaves. Diversity of 50 genotypes of mungbean was assessed against A. alternata and data on pathological traits was subjected to cluster analysis. The results showed that genotypes of mungbean were grouped into four clusters based on resistance parameters under the influence of disease. The principal component biplot demonstrated that all the disease-related parameters (% disease incidence, % disease intensity, lesion area, and % of infection) were strongly correlated with each other. Alt a 1 gene that is precisely found in Alternaria species and is responsible for virulence and pathogenicity. Alt a 1 gene was amplified using gene specific primers. The isolated pathogen produced similar symptoms when inoculated on mungbean and tobacco. The sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, a 600 bp fragment amplified using specific primers, ITS1 and ITS2 showed 100% identity with A. alternata. Potato virus X (PVX) -based silencing vector expressing Alt a 1 gene was constructed to control this pathogen through RNA interference in tobacco. Out of 50 inoculated plants, 9 showed delayed onset of disease. Furthermore, to confirm our findings at molecular level semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction was used. Both phenotypic and molecular investigation indicated that RNAi induced through the VIGS vector was efficacious in resisting the pathogen in the model host, Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). To the best of our knowledge, this study has been reported for the first time.

Metarhizium anisopliae E6 secretome reveals molecular players in host specificity and toxicity linked to cattle tick infection

Although Metarhizium anisopliae is one of the most studied fungal biocontrol agents, its infection mechanism is far from being completely understood. Using multidimensional protein identification technology (MudPIT), we evaluated the differential secretome of M. anisopliae E6 induced by the host Rhipicephalus microplus cuticle. The proteomic result showed changes in the expression of 194 proteins after exposure to host cuticle, such as proteins involved in adhesion, penetration, stress and fungal defense. Further, we performed a comparative genomic distribution of differentially expressed proteins of the M. anisopliae secretome against another arthropod pathogen, using the Beauveria bassiana ARSEF2860 protein repertory. Among 47 analyzed protein families, thirty were overexpressed in the M. anisopliae E6 predicted genome compared to B. bassiana. An in vivo toxicity assay using a Galleria mellonella model confirmed that the M. anisopliae E6 secretome was more toxic in cattle tick infections compared to other secretomes, including B. bassiana with cattle ticks and M. anisopliae E6 with the insect Dysdereus peruvianus, which our proteomic results had also suggested. These results help explain molecular aspects associated with host infection specificity due to genetic differences and gene expression control at the protein level in arthropod-pathogenic fungi.

Volatile Metabolite Profiling of Wheat Kernels Contaminated by Fusarium graminearum

Traditional methods used to detect fungi or mycotoxins are time-consuming and prevent real-time monitoring. In this study, solid-phase microextraction combined with full two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry was utilized to detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by fungi during grain infestation predictive F. graminearum PH-1 infestation in wheat. The results show that the VOCs emitted by F. graminearum can distinguish strains at different growth stages. The growth matrices (potato dextrose agar medium and wheat kernels) play a large role in VOC production. The infection of wheat sample F. graminearum showed that a specific relationship between VOCs and the composition of fungal flora, for example, 5-pentyl-cyclohexa-1,3-diene, 3-hexanone, and 1,3-octadiene, was positively correlated with the infection rate of PH-1. In the correlation study of fungal mycotoxins and VOCs, zearalenone produced by F. graminearum was predicted based on the VOCs released. Further analysis determined the correlation of three VOCs, 6-butyl-1,4-cycloheptadiene, hexahydro-3-methylenebenzofuran-2(3H)-one, and (E,E)-3,5-octadien-2-one, with zearalenone production, confirming the ability of VOCs as characteristic markers of mycotoxins.

Rapid detection and identification of fungi in grain crops using colloidal Au nanoparticles based on surface-enhanced Raman scattering and multivariate statistical analysis

Grain crops are easily contaminated by fungi due to the existence of various microorganisms in the storage process, especially in humid and warm storage conditions. Compared with conventional methods, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) has paved the way for the detection of fungi in grain crops as it is a rapid, nondestructive, and sensitive analytical method. In this work, Aspergillus niger, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Fusarium moniliforme and Trichoderma viride in grain crops were detected using colloidal Au nanoparticles and SERS. The results indicated that different fungi showed different Raman phenotypes, which could be easily characterized by SERS. Combined with multivariate statistical analysis, identification of a variety of fungi could be accomplished rapidly and accurately. This research can be applied for the rapid detection of fungi in the food and biomedical industries.

Recent Advances in the Allergic Cross-Reactivity between Fungi and Foods

Airborne fungi are one of the most ubiquitous kinds of inhalant allergens which can result in allergic diseases. Fungi tend to grow in warm and humid environments with regional and seasonal variations. Their nomenclature and taxonomy are related to the sensitization of immunoglobulin E (IgE). Allergic cross-reactivity among different fungal species appears to be widely existing. Fungus-related foods, such as edible mushrooms, mycoprotein, and fermented foods by fungi, can often induce to fungus food allergy syndrome (FFAS) by allergic cross-reactivity with airborne fungi. FFAS may involve one or more target organs, including the oral mucosa, the skin, the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, and the cardiovascular system, with various allergic symptoms ranging from oral allergy syndrome (OAS) to severe anaphylaxis. This article reviews the current knowledge on the field of allergic cross-reactivity between fungal allergens and related foods, as well as the diagnosis and treatment on FFAS.

Rapid Detection of Aspergillus flavus and Quantitative Determination of Aflatoxin B1 in Grain Crops Using a Portable Raman Spectrometer Combined with Colloidal Au Nanoparticles

Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins in grain crops give rise to a serious threat to food security and cause huge economic losses. In particular, aflatoxin B1 has been identified as a Class I carcinogen to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Compared with conventional methods, Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) has paved the way for the detection of Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins in grain crops as it is a rapid, nondestructive, and sensitive analytical method. In this work, the rapid detection of Aspergillus flavus and quantification of Aflatoxin B1 in grain crops were performed by using a portable Raman spectrometer combined with colloidal Au nanoparticles (AuNPs). With the increase of the concentration of Aspergillus flavus spore suspension in the range of 102–108 CFU/mL, the better the combination of Aspergillus flavus spores and AuNPs, the better the enhancement effect of AuNPs solution on the Aspergillus flavus. A series of different concentrations of aflatoxin B1 methanol solution combined with AuNPs were determined based on SERS and their spectra were similar to that of solid powder. Moreover, the characteristic peak increased gradually with the increase of concentration in the range of 0.0005–0.01 mg/L and the determination limit was 0.0005 mg/L, which was verified by HPLC in ppM concentration. This rapid detection method can greatly shorten the detection time from several hours or even tens of hours to a few minutes, which can help to take effective measures to avoid causing large economic losses.

Spectral pattern study of citrus black rot caused by Alternaria alternata and selecting optimal wavelengths for decay detection

Fungal decay is one of the most common diseases that affect postharvest operations and sales of citrus. Sometimes, fungal disease develops and spreads inside the fruit and in the advanced stages of the disease, it appears apparent, so the use of efficient and reliable methods for early detection of the disease is very important. In this study, early detection of citrus black rot disease caused by Alternaria genus fungus was examined using spectroscopy. Jaffa oranges were inoculated with Alternaria alternata. The samples were inspected by spectroscopy (200–1100 nm) in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd weeks after inoculation. The classification of healthy and infected samples and selection of most important wavelengths were conducted by soft independent modeling of class analogy (SIMCA). The most important wavelengths in the detection of healthy and infected samples of the 1st week were 507, 933, 937, and 950 nm with a classification accuracy of 60%. The most important wavelengths of the 2nd week were 522 and 787 nm with a classification accuracy of 60%. Also, wavelengths of 546, 660, 691, and 839 were found to be effective in the 3rd week with a classification accuracy of 100%.

Airborne bacterial and fungal concentrations and fungal diversity in bedrooms of infant twins under 1 year of age living in Porto

Exposure to airborne microorganisms has been linked to the development of health detriments, particularly in children. Microbial pollution can constitute a relevant health concern indoors, where levels of airborne microorganisms may be specially increased. This work aimed to characterize the airborne bacterial levels, and fungal concentration and diversity to which twins are exposed in their bedrooms (n = 30) during the first year of life. Bacterial and fungal levels varied widely across the studied bedrooms, with 10% of the rooms presenting values exceeding the national limit for both indoor bacterial and fungal counts. Cladosporium was the predominant genera, but Penicillium, Aspergillus, Alternaria, Trichoderma and Chrysonilia were also identified in the samples collected. In addition, two toxicogenic species, A. flavus and T. viride, were identified at counts that exceeded the established limit (12 CFU/m³) in 3 and 7% of the bedrooms surveyed, respectively. Based on indoor-to-outdoor concentration ratios, outdoor air seemed to be the main contributor to the total load of fungi found indoors, while airborne bacteria appeared to be mainly linked to indoor sources. Higher indoor nitrogen dioxide levels were negatively correlated with indoor fungi concentrations, whereas particulate matter and volatile organic compounds concentrations were associated with an increase in fungal prevalence. In addition, rooms with small carpets or located near outdoor agriculture sources presented significantly greater total fungal concentrations. Multiple linear regression models showed that outdoor levels were the single significant predictor identified, explaining 38.6 and 53.6% of the Cladosporium sp. and total fungi counts, respectively. The results also suggest the existence of additional factors contributing to airborne biologicals load in infants' bedrooms that deserve further investigation. Findings stress the need for investigating the existence of declared interactive effects between chemical and biological air pollutants to accurately understand the health risk that the assessed levels can represent to infants.

Fungal Allergen and Mold Allergy Diagnosis: Role and Relevance of Alternaria alternata Alt a 1 Protein Family

Alternaria is a genus of worldwide fungi found in different habitats such as soil, the atmosphere, plants or indoor environments. Alternaria species are saprobic—largely involved in the decomposition of organic material—but they can also act as animal pathogens, causing disease in humans and animals, developing infections, toxicosis and allergic diseases. A. alternata is considered one of the most important sources of fungal allergens worldwide and it is associated with severe asthma and respiratory status. Among the A. alternata allergens, Alt a 1 is the main sensitizing allergen and its usefulness in diagnosis and immunotherapy has been demonstrated. Alt a 1 seems to define a protein family that can be used to identify related pathogenic fungi in plants and fruits, and to establish taxonomic relationships between the different fungal divisions.

Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Moroccan Isolates Belong to Alternaria spp. Causing Black Rot and Brown Spot in Citrus

Alternaria alternata is one of the most important fungi causing various diseases on citrus worldwide. In Morocco, Alternaria black rot (ABR) and Alternaria brown spot (ABS) are two major diseases causing serious losses in commercial cultivars of citrus. The aim of the present work was to study the genetic diversity and the population structure of isolates belonging to sect. Alternaria obtained from infected citrus fruits, collected from seven provinces at different locations in Morocco (markets, packinghouses, and orchards). Forty-five isolates were analyzed by sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) markers, and cluster analysis of DNA fragments was performed using UPGMA method and Jaccard coefficient. Cluster analysis revealed that isolates were classified in four distinct groups. AMOVA revealed also a large extent of variation within sect. Alternaria isolates (99%). The results demonstrate that no correlation was found among SRAP pattern, host, and geographical origin of these isolates. Population structure analyses showed that the Alternaria isolates from the same collection origin had almost a similar level of admixture.

Purified Native and Recombinant Major Alternaria alternata Allergen (Alt a 1) Induces Allergic Asthma in the Murine Model

Aeroallergens such us the spores of Alternaria alternata are described as the most important agents associated with respiratory allergies and severe asthma. Various experimental models of asthma have been developed using A. alternata extracts to study the pathogenesis of asthma, establishing the main parameters that trigger the asthmatic response. In this study, we describe a mouse model of asthma induced only by Alt a 1. To induce the allergic response, mice were challenged intranasally with the major allergen of A. alternata, Alt a 1. The presence of eosinophils in the lungs, elevated concentrations of Th2 family cytokines, lymphocyte proliferation and elevated IgE total serum levels indicated that the sensitisation and challenge with Alt a 1 induced the development of airway inflammation. Histological studies showed an eosinophilic cellular infiltrate in the lung tissue of mice instilled with Alt a 1. We demonstrate that Alt a 1 alone is capable of inducing a lung inflammatory response with an increase in IgE serum levels mimicking the allergic asthma immunoresponse when it is administered into BALB/c mice. This model will allow the evaluation of the immunoregulatory or immunotolerant capacity of several molecules that can be used in targeted immunotherapy for fungal allergic asthma.

Alternaria as an Inducer of Allergic Sensitization

Alternaria alternata is a saprophytic mold whose spores are disseminated in warm dry air, the typical weather of the Mediterranean climate region (from 30° to 45°), with a peak during the late summer and early autumn. Alternaria spores are known to be biological contaminants and a potent source of aeroallergens. One consequence of human exposure to Alternaria is an increased risk of developing asthma, with Alt a 1 as its main elicitor and a marker of primary sensitization. Although the action mechanism needs further investigation, a key role of the epithelium in cytokine production, TLR-activated alveolar macrophages and innate lymphoid cells in the adaptive response was demonstrated. Furthermore, sensitization to A. alternata seems to be a trigger for the development of co-sensitization to other allergen sources and may act as an exacerbator of symptoms and an elicitor of food allergies. The prevalence of A. alternata allergy is increasing and has led to expanding research on the role of this fungal species in the induction of IgE-mediated respiratory diseases. Indeed, recent research has allowed new perspectives to be considered in the assessment of exposure and diagnosis of fungi-induced allergies, although more studies are needed for the standardization of immunotherapy formulations.

The Aspergillus niger Major Allergen (Asp n 3) DNA-Specific Sequence Is a Reliable Marker to Identify Early Fungal Contamination and Postharvest Damage in Mangifera indica Fruit

The aim of this work was to study the value of the main allergen Asp n 3 of Aspergillus niger as a molecular marker of allergenicity and pathogenicity with the potential to be used in the identification of A. niger as a contaminant and cause of spoilage of Mangifera indica. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used for the amplification of Asp n 3 gene. Two pairs of primers were designed: one for the amplification of the entire sequence and another one for the amplification of the most conserved region of this peroxisomal protein. The presence of A. niger was demonstrated by the early detection of the allergenic protein Asp n 3 coding gene, which could be considered a species-specific marker. The use of primers designed based on the conserved region of the Asp n 3 encoding gene allowed us to identify the presence of the closely related fungal species Aspergillus fumigatus by detecting Asp n 3 homologous protein, which can be cross-reactive. The use of conserved segments of the Asp n 3 gene or its entire sequence allows us to detect phylogenetically closely related species within the Aspergilaceae family or to identify species-specific contaminating fungi.

Targeted versus Nontargeted Green Strategies Based on Headspace-Gas Chromatography-Ion Mobility Spectrometry Combined with Chemometrics for Rapid Detection of Fungal Contamination on Wheat Kernels

Conventional methods for detecting fungal contamination are generally time-consuming and sample-destructive, making them impossible for large-scale nondestructive detection and real-time analysis. Therefore, the potential of headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS) was examined for the rapid determination of fungal infection on wheat samples in a rapid and nondestructive manner. In addition, the validation experiment of detecting the percent A. flavus infection presented in simulated field samples was carried out. Because the dual separation of HS-GC-IMS could generate massive amounts of three-dimensional data, proper chemometric processing was required. In this study, two chemometric strategies including: (i) nontargeted spectral fingerprinting and (ii) targeted specific markers were introduced to evaluate the performances of classification and prediction models. Results showed that satisfying results for the differentiation of fungal species were obtained based on both strategies (>80%) by the genetic algorithm optimized support vector machine (GA-SVM), and better values were obtained based on the first strategy (100%). Likewise, the GA-SVM model based on the first strategy achieved the best prediction performances (R² = 0.979-0.998) of colony counts in fungal infected samples. The results of validation experiment showed that GA-SVM models based on the first strategy could still provide satisfactory classification (86.67%) and prediction (R² = 0.889) performances for percent A. flavus infection presented in simulated field samples at day 4. This study indicated the feasibility of HS-GC-IMS-based approaches for the early detection of fungal contamination in wheat kernels.

DNA sequencing, genomes and genetic markers of microbes on fruits and vegetables

The development of DNA sequencing technology has provided an effective method for studying foodborne and phytopathogenic microorganisms on fruits and vegetables (F & V). DNA sequencing has successfully proceeded through three generations, including the tens of operating platforms. These advances have significantly promoted microbial whole‐genome sequencing (WGS) and DNA polymorphism research. Based on genomic and regional polymorphisms, genetic markers have been widely obtained. These molecular markers are used as targets for PCR or chip analyses to detect microbes at the genetic level. Furthermore, metagenomic analyses conducted by sequencing the hypervariable regions of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) have revealed comprehensive microbial communities in various studies on F & V. This review highlights the basic principles of three generations of DNA sequencing, and summarizes the WGS studies of and available DNA markers for major bacterial foodborne pathogens and phytopathogenic fungi found on F & V. In addition, rDNA sequencing‐based bacterial and fungal metagenomics are summarized under three topics. These findings deepen the understanding of DNA sequencing and its application in studies of foodborne and phytopathogenic microbes and shed light on strategies for the monitoring of F & V microbes and quality control.

2-Phenylethyl Isothiocyanate Exerts Antifungal Activity against Alternaria alternata by Affecting Membrane Integrity and Mycotoxin Production

Black spot caused by Alternaria alternata is one of the important diseases of pear fruit during storage. Isothiocyanates are known as being strong antifungal compounds in vitro against different fungi. The aim of this study was to assess the antifungal effects of the volatile compound 2-phenylethyl isothiocyanate (2-PEITC) against A. alternata in vitro and in pear fruit, and to explore the underlying inhibitory mechanisms. The in vitro results showed that 2-PEITC significantly inhibited spore germination and mycelial growth of A. alternata-the inhibitory effects showed a dose-dependent pattern and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was 1.22 mM. The development of black spot rot on the pear fruit inoculated with A. alternata was also significantly decreased by 2-PEITC fumigation. At 1.22 mM concentration, the lesion diameter was only 39% of that in the control fruit at 7 days after inoculation. Further results of the leakage of electrolyte, increase of intracellular OD260, and propidium iodide (PI) staining proved that 2-PEITC broke cell membrane permeability of A. alternata. Moreover, 2-PEITC treatment significantly decreased alternariol (AOH), alternariolmonomethyl ether (AME), altenuene (ALT), and tentoxin (TEN) contents of A. alternata. Taken together, these data suggest that the mechanisms underlying the antifungal effect of 2-PEITC against A. alternata might be via reduction in toxin content and breakdown of cell membrane integrity.

Effects of ε-poly-l-lysine on vegetative growth, pathogenicity and gene expression of Alternaria alternata infecting Nicotiana tabacum

Microbial secondary metabolites produced by Streptomyces are applied to control plant diseases. ε-poly-l-lysine (ε-PL) is a non-toxic food preservative, but the potential application of ε-PL as a microbial fungicide in agriculture has rarely been reported. In this study, Alternaria alternata (A. alternata) was used to reveal the effect and mode of action for ε-PL on the plant pathogenic fungi. The results showed that ε-PL effectively inhibited necrotic-lesion development caused by A. alternata on tobacco. Mycelial growth was also significantly inhibited in vitro by 100 μg/ml ε-PL using in vitro analysis. Moreover, 25 μg/ml ε-PL inhibited spore germination and induced abnormal morphological development of A. alternata hyphae. To clarify the molecular-genetic antifungal mechanisms, we selected several crucial genes involved in the development and pathogenesis of A. alternata and studied their expression regulated by ε-PL. Results of real-time quantitative PCR showed that a mycelium morphology and pathogenic process related cyclic adenosine monophosphate protein (cAMP) dependent protein kinase A (PKA), Alternaria alternata cAMP-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit (AAPK1) and the early infection-related glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) were down-regulated after ε-PL treatment. The results provide novel insights for the application of ε-PL in the control of plant diseases caused by A. alternata.

A Comprehensive Review on Kiwifruit Allergy: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Management, and Potential Modification of Allergens Through Processing

Kiwifruit is rich in bioactive components including dietary fibers, carbohydrates, natural sugars, vitamins, minerals, omega-3 fatty acids, and antioxidants. These components are beneficial to boost the human immune system and prevent cancer and heart diseases. However, kiwifruit is emerging as one of the most common elicitors of food allergies worldwide. Kiwifruit allergy results from an abnormal immune response to kiwifruit proteins and occur after consuming this fruit. Symptoms range from the oral allergy syndrome (OAS) to the life-threatening anaphylaxis. Thirteen different allergens have been identified in green kiwifruit and, among these allergens, Act d 1, Act d 2, Act d 8, Act d 11, and Act d 12 are defined as the "major allergens." Act d 1 and Act d 2 are ripening-related allergens and are found in abundance in fully ripe kiwifruit. Structures of several kiwifruit allergens may be altered under high temperatures or strong acidic conditions. This review discusses the pathogenesis, clinical features, and diagnosis of kiwifruit allergy and evaluates food processing methods including thermal, ultrasound, and chemical processing which may be used to reduce the allergenicity of kiwifruit. Management and medical treatments for kiwifruit allergy are also summarized.

Determination of Alternaria Mycotoxins in Fresh Sweet Cherries and Cherry-Based Products: Method Validation and Occurrence

Sweet cherry is susceptible to disease caused by the Alternaria species and produces various Alternaria mycotoxins. Analytical methodologies based on solid-phase extraction (SPE) and LC-MS/MS to simultaneously determine five main Alternaria mycotoxins (tenuazonic acid, 1; alternariol, 2; alternariol methyl ether, 3; altenuene, 4; and tentoxin, 5) in fresh sweet cherries and cherry products were developed and validated. The limits of quantitation (LOQ) of the analytes ranged from 0.002-0.066 μg/kg. The method was successfully applied to 83 fresh cherry and cherry-related product samples. 1 and 5 were the predominant toxins with detection frequencies >50%, followed by 3 (42%), 2 (35%), and 4 (31%). Daily intakes of Alternaria mycotoxins via fresh sweet cherries were assessed preliminarily using the measured concentrations, and consumption data were obtained from a web-based dietary questionnaire ( n = 476). The maximum exposure of 1 and 3 were 4.6 and 16.7 times the threshold of the toxicological concern (TTC) value, respectively.