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Alegbeleye O, Rhee MS. Growth of Listeria monocytogenes in fresh vegetables and vegetable salad products: An update on influencing intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2024; 23:e13423. [PMID: 39169547 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024]
Abstract
The ability of foodborne pathogens to grow in food products increases the associated food safety risks. Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) is a highly adaptable pathogen that can survive and grow under a wide range of environmental circumstances, including otherwise inhibitory conditions, such as restrictive cold temperatures. It can also survive long periods under adverse environmental conditions. This review examines the experimental evidence available for the survival and growth of Lm on fresh vegetables and ready-to-eat vegetable salads. Published data indicate that, depending on certain intrinsic (e.g., nutrient composition) and extrinsic factors (e.g., storage temperature, packaging atmosphere), Lm can survive on and in a wide variety of vegetables and fresh-cut minimally processed vegetable salads. Studies have shown that temperature, modified atmosphere packaging, relative humidity, pH, water activity, background microbiota of vegetables, microbial strain peculiarities, and nutrient type and availability can significantly impact the fate of Lm in vegetables and vegetable salads. The influence of these factors can either promote its growth or decline. For example, some studies have shown that background microbiota inhibit the growth of Lm in vegetables and minimally processed vegetable salads, but others have reported a promoting, neutral, or insignificant effect on the growth of Lm. A review of relevant literature also indicated that the impact of most influencing factors is related to or interacts with other intrinsic or extrinsic factors. This literature synthesis contributes to the body of knowledge on possible strategies for improving food safety measures to minimize the risk of Lm-associated foodborne outbreaks involving vegetables and vegetable salads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwadara Alegbeleye
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Min Suk Rhee
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
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Habib I, Lakshmi GB, Mohamed MYI, Ghazawi A, Khan M, Al-Rifai RH, Abdalla A, Anes F, Elbediwi M, Khalifa HO, Senok A. Staphylococcus spp. in Salad Vegetables: Biodiversity, Antimicrobial Resistance, and First Identification of Methicillin-Resistant Strains in the United Arab Emirates Food Supply. Foods 2024; 13:2439. [PMID: 39123630 PMCID: PMC11312142 DOI: 10.3390/foods13152439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2024] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 07/26/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Contamination of leafy greens with Staphylococcus spp. can occur at various supply chain stages, from farm to table. This study comprehensively analyzes the species diversity, antimicrobial resistance, and virulence factors of Staphylococci in salad vegetables from markets in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). A total of 343 salad items were sampled from three major cities in the UAE from May 2022 to February 2023 and tested for the presence of Staphylococcus spp. using standard culture-based methods. Species-level identification was achieved using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was conducted using the VITEK-2 system with AST-P592 cards. Additionally, whole genome sequencing (WGS) of ten selected isolates was performed to characterize antimicrobial resistance determinants and toxin-related virulence factors. Nine Staphylococcus species were identified in 37.6% (129/343) of the tested salad items, with coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) dominating (87.6% [113/129]) and S. xylosus being the most prevalent (89.4% [101/113]). S. aureus was found in 4.6% (14/343) of the salad samples, averaging 1.7 log10 CFU/g. One isolate was confirmed as methicillin-resistant S. aureus, harboring the mecA gene. It belonged to multi-locus sequence type ST-672 and spa type t384 and was isolated from imported fresh dill. Among the characterized S. xylosus (n = 45), 13.3% tested positive in the cefoxitin screen test, and 6.6% were non-susceptible to oxacillin. WGS analysis revealed that the cytolysin gene (cylR2) was the only toxin-associated factor found in S. xylosus, while a methicillin-sensitive S. aureus isolate harbored the Panton-Valentine Leukocidin (LukSF/PVL) gene. This research is the first to document the presence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus in the UAE food chain. Furthermore, S. xylosus (a coagulase-negative staphylococcus not commonly screened in food) has demonstrated phenotypic resistance to clinically relevant antimicrobials. This underscores the need for vigilant monitoring of antimicrobial resistance in bacterial contaminants, whether pathogenic or commensal, at the human-food interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ihab Habib
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates; (G.B.L.); (M.-Y.I.M.); (A.A.); (F.A.); (H.O.K.)
- ASPIRE Research Institute for Food Security in the Drylands (ARIFSID), United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Glindya Bhagya Lakshmi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates; (G.B.L.); (M.-Y.I.M.); (A.A.); (F.A.); (H.O.K.)
- ASPIRE Research Institute for Food Security in the Drylands (ARIFSID), United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mohamed-Yousif Ibrahim Mohamed
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates; (G.B.L.); (M.-Y.I.M.); (A.A.); (F.A.); (H.O.K.)
- ASPIRE Research Institute for Food Security in the Drylands (ARIFSID), United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Akela Ghazawi
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates; (A.G.); (M.K.)
- Zayed Center for Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates;
| | - Mushtaq Khan
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates; (A.G.); (M.K.)
- Zayed Center for Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates;
| | - Rami H. Al-Rifai
- Zayed Center for Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates;
- Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Afra Abdalla
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates; (G.B.L.); (M.-Y.I.M.); (A.A.); (F.A.); (H.O.K.)
- ASPIRE Research Institute for Food Security in the Drylands (ARIFSID), United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Febin Anes
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates; (G.B.L.); (M.-Y.I.M.); (A.A.); (F.A.); (H.O.K.)
| | - Mohammed Elbediwi
- Evolutionary Biology, Institute for Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany;
- Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Centre, Cairo 12619, Egypt
| | - Hazim O. Khalifa
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates; (G.B.L.); (M.-Y.I.M.); (A.A.); (F.A.); (H.O.K.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafr El Sheikh 33516, Egypt
| | - Abiola Senok
- College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai P.O. Box 50505, United Arab Emirates;
- School of Dentistry, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XY, UK
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Cid-Pérez TS, Munguía-Pérez R, Nevárez-Moorillón GV, Ochoa-Velasco CE, Navarro-Cruz AR, Avila-Sosa R. Carvacrol and thymol effect in vapor phase on Escherichia coli and Salmonella serovar Typhimurium growth inoculated in a fresh salad. Heliyon 2024; 10:e29638. [PMID: 38694112 PMCID: PMC11058290 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial effect of thymol and carvacrol in inhibiting Escherichia coli and Salmonella serovar Typhimurium inoculated on a fresh green salad through the vapor phase. A film-forming solution was prepared by dissolving starch, sorbitol, and variying concentrations of carvacrol, thymol, and a mixture of both. The film-forming solution containing the respective antimicrobial agent was then added lid, which was sealed rigidly and hermetically to achieve different concentrations (105 mg/L of air of carvacrol, 105 mg/L of air of thymol, and a mixture of 52 mg/L of air of carvacrol and 52 mg/L of air of thymol). Each active package contained fresh green salad inoculated with E. coli or Salmonella serovar Typhimurium. The active packages were then sealed and refrigerated at a temperature of 6 °C for 48 h. Growth/inhibition curves were modelled using the Weibull equation, and consumer acceptance was evaluated. Carvacrol can reduce up to 0.5 log-cycles, while thymol can reach almost 1 log cycle. Blending the components with half the concentration has a synergistic effect, inhibiting up to 2.5 log cycles. Consumer ratings revealed no significant differences between the packages. However, the average score was 5.4 on a 9-point hedonic scale, evaluators' comments did not indicate dislike or a strong taste characteristic of thymol and carvacrol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Soledad Cid-Pérez
- Departamento de Bioquímica-Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico
| | - Ricardo Munguía-Pérez
- Laboratorio de Micología, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Microbiológicas, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico
| | | | - Carlos Enrique Ochoa-Velasco
- Departamento de Bioquímica-Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico
| | - Addí Rhode Navarro-Cruz
- Departamento de Bioquímica-Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico
| | - Raúl Avila-Sosa
- Departamento de Bioquímica-Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico
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Zernadji W, Jebri S, Rahmani F, Amri I, Aissaoui D, Trabelsi MH, Yahya M, Amri I, Hmaied F. Effect of Gamma Irradiation on Pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus in Packaged Ready-to-Eat Salads Treated with Biological Extracts. J Food Prot 2024; 87:100232. [PMID: 38278487 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfp.2024.100232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
Providing pathogen-free ready-to-eat (RTE) salads is critical for all consumers, especially individuals with weakened immunity. In this study, the efficacy of γ-irradiation on Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) in freshly packaged salads (4.24 log CFU/g) treated with essential oil (EO) and myrtle juice during 10 days of storage and their impact on organoleptic properties were investigated. EO was extracted by hydrodistillation and the chemical composition was analyzed by gas chromatography with Flame Ionization Detector (GC/FID) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Myrtle juice was prepared from fresh fruits. The cytotoxic effects of Thymus capitatus (T. capitatus) EO against a normal human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) were assessed. GC/FID and GC-MS analysis of the thyme EO revealed the presence of 13 compounds, including carvacrol (79.55%) and p-cymene (7.93%) as major components. The EO was found to be noncytotoxic, with concentrations lower than 0.16 µL/mL. A reduction of more than 3 log CFU/g and a total inactivation of S. aureus were achieved with the combination of gamma irradiation at 0.5 kGy with myrtle juice at 6 µL/mL and EO at 0.08 µL/mL, respectively. The treatment of fresh RTE salads with thyme and myrtle juice was evaluated as acceptable by the sensory panel. The combined effect showed a synergistic potential on the inactivation of S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Widad Zernadji
- University of Carthage, Higher School of Food Industries, 1003 Tunis, Tunisia; Laboratoire de Biotechnologies et Technologie Nucléaire, CNSTN, Sidi Thabet 2020, Tunisia.
| | - Sihem Jebri
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologies et Technologie Nucléaire, CNSTN, Sidi Thabet 2020, Tunisia.
| | - Faten Rahmani
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologies et Technologie Nucléaire, CNSTN, Sidi Thabet 2020, Tunisia.
| | - Ismail Amri
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologies et Technologie Nucléaire, CNSTN, Sidi Thabet 2020, Tunisia.
| | - Dorra Aissaoui
- Institut Pasteur of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1002, Tunisia.
| | | | - Mariem Yahya
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologies et Technologie Nucléaire, CNSTN, Sidi Thabet 2020, Tunisia.
| | - Islem Amri
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologies et Technologie Nucléaire, CNSTN, Sidi Thabet 2020, Tunisia.
| | - Fatma Hmaied
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologies et Technologie Nucléaire, CNSTN, Sidi Thabet 2020, Tunisia.
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Psomatakis M, Papadimitriou K, Souliotis A, Drosinos EH, Papadopoulos G. Food Safety and Management System Audits in Food Retail Chain Stores in Greece. Foods 2024; 13:457. [PMID: 38338591 PMCID: PMC10855910 DOI: 10.3390/foods13030457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to assess the performance of food safety management systems in food retail stores via audits to reveal potential areas of improvement and to find out possible corrective actions to suggest to the top management. Two cycles of on-site audits took place in 106 stores to assess the requirements and hygiene conditions. After the first cycle of audits, improvements were suggested to the top management, and a second cycle of audits took place after a reasonable time. In the checklist, we recorded the temperatures of retail refrigerators and the scores from the inspection of hygiene and HACCP documentation. In the A' audit, the percentage of stores that had higher temperatures than the critical limits was equal to 51%, and those temperatures occurred in the refrigerators for salads, followed by the refrigerators for deli meat, yogurts and desserts. In the B' audit, only the refrigerators for salads exhibited percentages that were statistically significant lower (p-value < 0.05), and the stores were improved after the audit. High percentages of high-scoring stores were observed in the A' and B' audit in the inspection of HACCP documentation, although there was not a statistically significant improvement observed (p-value > 0.05). In the hygiene inspection, statistically significant improvement with 95% confidence appeared for "Refrigerator's products appearance", "Storage cleanliness", and "Grocery shelf cleanliness". The highest number of non-conformities without statistically significant improvement was found for "Checking temperatures of the receiving products" and "Labeling of fruit store products", with the percentages being lower than 15% in both of the audit cycles. Many employees of the stores did not check and record the temperatures of receiving products from suppliers. In addition, the storage of spoiled products beneath fresh products for selling in the same refrigerator is not a good practice. Greater efforts must be made by top management and employees to maintain and distribute food products in the best and safest possible hygiene conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michalis Psomatakis
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece; (M.P.); (E.H.D.)
| | - Konstantinos Papadimitriou
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece; (M.P.); (E.H.D.)
| | - Andreas Souliotis
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Harokopio University of Athens, 17676 Athens, Greece;
| | - Eleftherios H. Drosinos
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece; (M.P.); (E.H.D.)
| | - Georgios Papadopoulos
- Institute for Design and Analysis of Experiments, University Research Center, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece;
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Kaur A, Yemmireddy V. Effect of Different Pre-Growth Temperatures on the Survival Kinetics of Salmonella enterica and Listeria monocytogenes in Fresh-Cut Salad during Refrigerated Storage. Foods 2023; 12:4287. [PMID: 38231743 DOI: 10.3390/foods12234287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
The effect of the pre-growth temperature of bacterial cultures on their subsequent survival kinetics in fresh-cut produce during refrigerated storage was investigated in this study. Three-strain cocktails of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enterica, cultured at different growth temperatures (4, 21, and 37 °C) were inoculated on fresh-cut mixed salad and on individual produce in the mixed salad. The inoculated samples were stored at 4 °C and 80 ± 2% relative humidity (RH) for up to 72 h and the growth, survival, or death kinetics were determined at regular intervals. The results indicate that depending upon the type of pathogen tested, the pre-growth temperature(s) and the type of produce showed a significant (p ≤ 0.05) effect on the survival kinetics. Among the tested produce, mixed salad showed the highest reduction in L. monocytogenes pre-grown at 37 °C (1.33 log CFU/g) followed by red cabbage (0.56 log CFU/g), iceberg lettuce (0.52 log CFU/g), and carrot (-0.62 log CFU/g), after 72 h, respectively. In the case of Salmonella, carrot showed the highest reduction (1.07 log CFU/g for 37 °C pre-grown culture) followed by mixed salad (0.78 log CFU/g for 37 °C pre-grown culture), cabbage (0.76 log CFU/g for 21 °C pre-grown culture), and lettuce (0.65 log CFU/g for 4 °C pre-grown culture), respectively. Among the tested ComBase predictive models, the Baranyi-Roberts model better fitted the experimental data. These findings indicate that the appropriate selection of pre-growth environmental conditions is critical to better understand the kinetics of foodborne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avninder Kaur
- School of Integrative Biological and Chemical Sciences, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1201 W University Dr, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
| | - Veerachandra Yemmireddy
- School of Integrative Biological and Chemical Sciences, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1201 W University Dr, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
- School of Earth, Environmental and Marine Sciences, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1201 W University Dr, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
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Systematic approach to select lactic acid bacteria from spontaneously fermented milk able to fight Listeria monocytogens and Staphylococcus aureus. FOOD BIOSCI 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbio.2022.102275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Functional Genomics Identified Novel Genes Involved in Growth at Low Temperatures in Listeria monocytogenes. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0071022. [PMID: 35735974 PMCID: PMC9431668 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00710-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) is a foodborne pathogen that can cause severe human illness. Standard control measures for restricting bacterial growth, such as refrigeration, are often inadequate as Lm grows well at low temperatures. To identify genes involved in growth at low temperatures, a powerful functional genomics method Tn-seq was performed in this study. This genome-wide screening comprehensively identified the known and novel genetic determinants involved in low-temperature growth. A novel gene lmo1366, encoding rRNA methyltransferase, was identified to play an essential role in Lm growth at 16°C. In contrast, the inactivation of lmo2301, a gene encoding the terminase of phage A118, significantly enhanced the growth of Lm at 16°C. The deletion of lmo1366 or lmo2301 resulted in cell morphology alterations and impaired the growth rate in milk and other conditions at low temperatures. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that the Δlmo1366 and Δlmo2301 mutants exhibited altered transcriptional patterns compared to the wild-type strain at 16°C with significant differences in genes involved in ribosome structural stability and function, and membrane biogenesis, respectively. This work uncovered novel genetic determinants involved in Lm growth at 16°C, which could lead to a better understanding of how bacteria survive and multiply at low temperatures. Furthermore, these findings could potentially contribute to developing novel antibacterial strategies under low-temperature conditions. IMPORTANCEListeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive pathogen that contributes to foodborne outbreaks due to its ability to survive at low temperatures. However, the genetic determinants of Lm involved in growth at low temperatures have not been fully defined. Here, the genetic determinants involved in the low-temperature growth of Lm were comprehensively identified on a genome-wide scale by Tn-seq. The gene lmo1366, encoding rRNA methyltransferase, was identified essential for growth under low-temperature conditions. On the other hand, the gene lmo2301, encoding terminase of phage A118, plays a negative role in bacterial growth at low temperatures. The transcriptomic analysis revealed the potential mechanisms. These findings lead to a better understanding of how bacteria survive and multiply at low temperatures and could provide unique targets for novel antibacterial strategies under low-temperature conditions.
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Biological and Agronomic Traits of the Main Halophytes Widespread in the Mediterranean Region as Potential New Vegetable Crops. HORTICULTURAE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/horticulturae8030195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Salinity is one of the oldest and most serious environmental problems in the world. The increasingly widespread salinization of soils and water resources represents a growing threat to agriculture around the world. A strategy to cope with this problem is to cultivate salt-tolerant crops and, therefore, it is necessary to identify plant species that are naturally adapted to high-salinity conditions. In this review, we focus our attention on some plant species that can be considered among the most representative halophytes of the Mediterranean region; they can be potential resources, such as new or relatively new vegetable crops, to produce raw or minimally processed (or ready-to-eat) products, considering their nutritional properties and nutraceuticals. The main biological and agronomic characteristics of these species and the potential health risks due to mycotoxigenic fungi have been analyzed and summarized in a dedicated section. The objective of this review is to illustrate the main biological and agronomical characteristics of the most common halophytic species in the Mediterranean area, which could expand the range of leafy vegetables on the market.
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