Optimisation of the pH and boiling conditions needed to obtain improved foaming and emulsifying properties of chickpea aquafaba using a response surface methodology

Utilization of green lentil wastewater as egg replacer in green lentil flour based muffins

Successful pretreatments for green lentil wastewater (GLW) were developed to substitute egg. Water to lentil ratio and microwave pretreatment were found to affect foam and emulsion quality, while the addition of salt had no effect on foam and emulsion quality of GLW. The GLW obtained at optimum preconditions was used in the determination of best formulation for muffin quality. Oven type, green lentil flour ratio, GLW ratio leading to the maximum moisture content, volume index, total phenolic content, percent area of air cells, and minimum ΔE values with a constraint of control muffin's hardness were determined. Conventional oven baking with the formulation of 5.71% green lentil flour and 18.15% GLW produced comparable product with wheat flour and egg formulation. This study proved that discarded GLW can be used as a substitute for egg, which is an expensive ingredient in bakery.

Graphical Abstract

Chickpea aquafaba: a systematic review of the different processes for obtaining and their nutritional and technological characteristics

Aquafaba is the residual water from cooking chickpea in water. It has a high gelling ability, allowing it to create stable gels. However, those functional properties depend on the legume composition, genotype, cooking time, pressure, and temperature. This study aimed to evaluate the different processes for obtaining aquafaba and compare their nutritional composition and technological characteristics using a systematic review. The authors performed the systematic review by performing specific search strategies for Scopus, Web of Science, Pubmed, Lilacs, Google Scholar, and ProQuest. A total of 17 studies were analyzed. Of them, 17.64% (n = 3) used the wastewater from canned chickpeas, 17.64% (n = 3) compared the wastewater of canned chickpeas and dry grains, and 58.82% (n = 10) used dry chickpeas. Studies used different methods to analyze the protein content. The most used (n = 5) was the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). The aquafaba presented carbohydrates at 2.03-2.59 g/100ml; protein at 0.0.8-2.8 g/100ml; and fat at 0.07-0.1 g/100ml. In general, preparing aquafaba followed: soaking (8-10 h at 4 °C-1 chickpea: 4 water), pressure cooking (30 min-2 chickpea: 3 water), and refrigerating (24h/4 °C). In general, the results showed the following steps to prepare aquafaba: soaking for 8-10 h at 4 °C at the proportion of 1:4 (chickpea:water), pressure cooking for 30 min in the proportion of 2:3 (chickpea: water), and refrigerating 24 h/4 °C. These procedures in a homemade aquafaba presented the best results, considering foam development and higher stability. The aquafaba from canned chickpeas has a higher foam-ability and lower emulsion properties than homemade cooking aquafaba.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05920-y.

Impact of Processing Method on AQF Functionality in Bakery Items

Aquafaba (AQF) has the unique ability to foam like egg whites and is a waste product of cooked chickpea that is not currently utilized by the food industry. Thus, the goal of this research was to concentrate the solids by reverse osmosis (cAQF) followed by drying. Dried AQF was prepared by cooking chickpea in excess water. After removal of the chickpea, the liquid AQF was subjected to reverse osmosis followed by freeze, tray, or spray drying. The resulting AQF products were incorporated into standard cake mix and sugar cookie formulas. Hardness, gumminess, and chewiness of cakes made with eggs were significantly higher compared to the cakes made with AQF. Spread factor was significantly greater for cookies made with AQF compared to eggs while hardness was significantly lower in cookies with AQF. Higher flavor and overall acceptability scores were observed in cookies made with AQF compared to cookies made with egg. However, sensory characteristics were generally not different among cakes. In general, cAQF and spray-dried AQF tended to produce cakes and cookies with the best quality and sensory characteristic. This research supports the use of RO and drying methods in producing AQF ingredients for baking applications.

Production of tomato powder from tomato puree with foam-mat drying using green pea aquafaba: drying parameters and bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to valorize green pea cooking water (aquafaba) as a foaming agent in foam-mat drying of tomato. For this aim, density of foam-mats (green pea aquafaba+tomato puree) changed between 1.06 and 0.45 g/mL depending on the aquafaba concentration. Foam-mats with 5 mm thickness were dried at 50, 60 and 70°C at 1.3 m/s air velocity.

RESULTS

The results showed that the porous structure of foams with lower densities resulted in higher drying rates and moisture diffusivities. Redness (a* ) value decreased with increasing aquafaba content (p < 0.05). Total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (CUPRAC, DPPH and FRAP) of the resulting tomato powders were also determined. Moreover, bioaccessibility of phenolics and antioxidant activities were also determined using in vitro digestion.

CONCLUSIONS

All of the bioactive parameters are positively affected by foam-mat drying process. Using aquafaba as a foaming agent accelerated the drying period and improved bioactive characteristics of the powders. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Study of the Technological Properties of Pedrosillano Chickpea Aquafaba and Its Application in the Production of Egg-Free Baked Meringues

Aquafaba is a by-product derived from legume processing. The aim of this study was to assess the compositional differences and the culinary properties of Pedrosillano chickpea aquafaba prepared with different cooking liquids (water, vegetable broth, meat broth and the covering liquid of canned chickpeas) and to evaluate the sensory characteristics of French-baked meringues made with the different aquafaba samples, using egg white as a control. The content of total solids, protein, fat, ash and carbohydrates of the aquafaba samples were quantified. Foaming and emulsifying capacities, as well as the foam and emulsions stabilities were determined. Instrumental and panel-tester analyses were accomplished to evaluate the sensory characteristics of French-baked meringues. The ingredients added to the cooking liquid and the intensity of the heat treatment affected the aquafaba composition and culinary properties. All types of aquafaba showed good foaming properties and intermediate emulsifying capacities; however, the commercial canned chickpea's aquafaba was the most similar to egg white. The aquafaba meringues showed less alveoli, greater hardness and fracturability and minimal color changes after baking compared with egg white meringues; the meat and vegetable broth's aquafaba meringues were the lowest rated by the panel-tester and those prepared with canned aquafaba were the highest scored in the sensory analysis.

Chickpea Aquafaba-Based Emulsions as a Fat Replacer in Pound Cake: Impact on Cake Properties and Sensory Analysis

This study evaluates the use of chickpea aquafaba (CA)-based emulsions as a potential substitute for palm oil (PO), using pound cake as a case study. The CA was characterized in terms of pH (6.38 ± 0.01), density (1.02 g mL⁻¹ ± 0.01), color, total soluble solids (6.3 ± 0.2 °Bx), total solids (5.7 ± 0.2%), thermal properties through DSC, and apparent viscosity (2.5 cPa·s⁻¹ ± 0.02 at 300 s⁻¹). Emulsions containing 35, 30, and 25% of CA were produced and applied to cake formulation C1, C2, and C3, respectively. The cake batter was evaluated in terms of apparent density (0.87–1.04 g¹ cm⁻³), rheology, and pH (6.6–6.8). The cakes were evaluated for specific volume, baking loss (8.9–9.5%), color, and symmetry index on day 1, and firmness, water activity (aw), and moisture content (%), after 14 days of storage. The cakes produced with the emulsions were found to have slightly higher specific volume (2.3 cm³ g⁻¹) when compared to the control (C4) produced with PO (2.2 cm³ g⁻¹). The moisture and aw decreased and firmness increased during storage. In terms of formulation (i.e., day 1 for C1, C2, C3, and C4), there was no significant difference for moisture. As for aw, the C4 (0.90) was significantly different from the cakes produced with emulsions (0.91–0.92). The results from the sensory evaluation, carried out with 120 panelists, showed no statistically significant difference between C3 and C4 for the attributes of aroma, color, texture, flavor, and overall impression. Based on our results, it appears that the CA-based emulsions have the potential to replace PO in pound-cake recipes, reducing total and saturated fat.

Developing Value-Added Protein Ingredients from Wastes and Byproducts of Pulses: Challenges and Opportunities

Wastes and byproducts of pulse processing carry a potential for utilization as raw materials for extraction of protein ingredients. This work is an overview of the extraction and fractionation techniques used for obtaining protein ingredients from wastes and byproducts of pulse processing, and it presents several characteristics of proteins extracted in terms of composition, nutritional properties, and functional properties. Several extraction methods have been applied to obtain protein ingredients from pulse processing wastes and byproducts. Each extraction technique is indicated to have significant effects on protein composition and functionality which could also affect the performance of proteins in different food applications. Versatile end product applications of protein ingredients obtained from pulse processing wastes and byproducts are yet to be discovered. Research is lacking on the limitations and improvement methods for using wastes and byproducts of pulses for protein extraction. This review provides insights into the possible applications of innovative extraction technologies for obtaining protein ingredients from wastes and byproducts of pulses. Further research has to focus on various modification techniques that can be applied to improve the functional, nutritional, and sensory properties of proteins extracted from pulse processing wastes and byproducts.

Storage Stability of Conventional and High Internal Phase Emulsions Stabilized Solely by Chickpea Aquafaba

Aquafaba is a liquid residue of cooked pulses, which is generally discarded as waste. However, it is rich in proteins and, thus, can be used as a plant-based emulsifier to structure vegetable oil. This study investigates chickpea aquafaba (CA) as an agent to structure different oil phase volumes (Φ) of canola oil (CO). CO was structured in the form of conventional emulsions (EΦ65% and EΦ70%) and high internal phase emulsion (HIPE) (EΦ75%) by the one-pot homogenization method. Emulsions were evaluated for a period of 60 days at 25 °C in terms of average droplet size (11.0−15.9 µm), microscopy, rheological properties, and oil loss (<1.5%). All systems presented predominantly elastic behavior and high resistance to coalescence. EΦ75% was the most stable system throughout the 60 days of storage. This study developed an inexpensive and easy to prepare potential substitute for saturated and trans-fat in food products. Moreover, it showed a valuable utilization of an often-wasted by-product and its conversion into a food ingredient.

Evaluation of the Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Aquasoya (Glycine max Merr.) Powder for Vegan Muffin Preparation

Recent concerns on health and sustainability have prompted the use of legumes as a source of plant-based proteins, resulting in the application of their cooking water as a substitute for egg whites. In this study, the cooking water of yellow soybeans was powdered, and, subsequently, the nutritional and functional characteristics of powders from yellow soybeans (YSP), chickpeas (CHP), and egg whites (EWP) were compared. The main components of these powders (total polyphenol, total carbohydrate, and protein), along with their hydration properties (hygroscopicity, water solubility index, and water/oil holding capacities), and emulsifying and foaming properties, were identified. The muffins prepared with YSP, CHP, and EWP were analyzed to determine their basic characteristics, such as volume, baking loss, and sensory attributes. The results of the powder analyses indicated that YSP was significantly superior to CHP and EWP, particularly in terms of holding capacities, and emulsion and foam stabilities. The sensory evaluation results showed that there was no statistically significant difference in overall acceptance among the muffin samples. Therefore, YSP can be used as an alternative to CHP or EWP, and applied as a novel ingredient in various vegan products.

A new trend among plant-based food ingredients in food processing technology: Aquafaba

In the new century, the most fundamental problem on a global scale is hunger and poverty reduction is one of the primary goals set by the United Nations. Currently, it is necessary to increase agricultural activities and to evaluate all agricultural products rich in nutrients without loss in order to feed the hungry population in the world. Considering that one of the most important causes of hunger in the world is inadequate access to protein content, legumes are one of the most valuable nutritional resources. In order to ensure the sustainability of legumes, alternative new ways of recycling their wastes are sought based on these multiple functions. For this purpose, recycling legume cooking waters to be used as food raw materials in various processes means reducing food waste. Recovery of nutritional components in legumes is also beneficial in vegan and vegetarian diets. In this review study, the importance of legumes in terms of global needs, their importance in terms of nutrition, the methods of obtaining the protein content of legumes, the functional properties of these proteins in the field of food processing, the gains of the evaluation and recovery of legume cooking water (Aquafaba), especially waste, were discussed.

Aquafaba from Korean Soybean I: A Functional Vegan Food Additive

The substitution of animal-based foods (meat, eggs, and milk) with plant-based products can increase the global food supply. Recently, pulse cooking water (a.k.a. aquafaba) was described as a cost-effective alternative to the egg in gluten-free, vegan cooking and baking applications. Aquafaba (AQ) forms stable edible foams and emulsions with functional properties that are like those produced by whole egg and egg white. However, the functional ingredients of AQ are usually discarded during food preparation. In this study, Korean-grown soy (ver. Backtae, Seoritae, and Jwinunikong) and chickpea were used to produce AQ. Two approaches were compared. In the first, seed was cooked at an elevated pressure without presoaking. In the second, seed was soaked, then, the soaking water was discarded, and soaked seed was cooked at an elevated pressure. Both approaches produced a useful emulsifier, but the latter, with presoaking, produced a superior product. This approach could lead to a process that involves a small number of efficient steps to recover an effective oil emulsifier, produces no waste, and is cost-effective. The AQ product from Backtae (yellow soybean) produced emulsions with better properties (90%) than AQ produced from other cultivars and produced more stable food oil emulsions. This study will potentially lead to gluten-free, vegan products for vegetarians and consumers with animal protein allergies. This is the first report of the efficient production of AQ, an egg white substitute derived from cooked soybean of known cultivars.

Standardization of Aquafaba Production and Application in Vegan Mayonnaise Analogs

Canning or boiling pulse seeds in water produces a by-product solution, called "aquafaba", that can be used as a plant-based emulsifier. One of the major problems facing the commercialization of aquafaba is inconsistency in quality and functionality. In this study, chickpea aquafaba production and drying methods were optimized to produce standardized aquafaba powder. Aquafaba samples, both freeze-dried and spray-dried, were used to make egg-free, vegan mayonnaise. Mayonnaise and analog physicochemical characteristics, microstructure, and stability were tested and compared to mayonnaise prepared using egg yolk. Chickpeas steeped in water at 4 °C for 16 h, followed by cooking at 75 kPa for 30 min at 116 °C, yielded aquafaba that produced the best emulsion qualities. Both lyophilization and spray drying to dehydrate aquafaba resulted in powders that retained their functionality following rehydration. Mayonnaise analogs made with aquafaba powder remained stable for 28 days of storage at 4 °C, although their droplet size was significantly higher than the reference sample made with egg yolk. These results show that aquafaba production can be standardized for optimal emulsion qualities, and dried aquafaba can mimic egg functions in food emulsions and has the potential to produce a wide range of eggless food products.

Evaluation of Changes in Protein Quality of High-Pressure Treated Aqueous Aquafaba

Chickpea cooking water (CCW), known as aquafaba, has potential as a replacement for egg whites due to its emulsion and foaming properties which come from the proteins and starch that leach out from chickpeas into the cooking water. High pressure (HP) processing has the ability to modify the functional characteristics of proteins. It is hypothesized that HP processing could favorably affect the functional properties of CCW proteins by influencing their structure. The objective of this study to evaluate the effect of HP treatment on the associated secondary structure, emulsion properties and thermal characteristics of CCW proteins. A central composite rotatable design is used with pressure level (227-573 MPa) and treatment time (6-24 min) as HP variables, and concentration of freeze dried CCW aquafaba powder (11-29%) as product variable, and compared to untreated CCW powder. HP improves aquafaba emulsion properties compared to control sample. HP reduces protein aggregates by 33.3%, while β-sheets decreases by 4.2-87.6% in which both correlated to increasing protein digestibility. α-helices drops by 50%. It affects the intensity of some HP treated samples, but not the trend of bands in most of them. HP treatment decreases Td and enthalpy because of increasing the degree of denaturation.

Optimisation of Protein Recovery from Arthrospira platensis by Ultrasound-Assisted Isoelectric Solubilisation/Precipitation

A response surface methodology was used to optimise the solubilisation and precipitation of proteins from the cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis. Two separate experiments were designed and conducted in a sequential manner. Protein solubilisation was affected by pH, extraction time, and biomass to solvent ratio (p < 0.001). Although spray-drying and the osmotic shock suffered when resuspending the dried biomass into distilled water led to a certain degree of cell wall disruption, the amount of protein that could be solubilised without an additional disruption step was in the range 30–60%. Sequential extractions improved protein solubilisation by less than 5%. For this reason, a pre-treatment based on sonication (400 W, 24 kHz, 2 min) had to be used, allowing the solubilisation of 96.2% of total proteins. Protein precipitation was affected by both pH and extraction time (p < 0.001). The optimised precipitation conditions, which were pH 3.89 over 45 min, led to a protein recovery of 75.2%. The protein content of the extract was close to 80%, which could be further increased by using different purification steps. The proteins extracted could be used in the food industry as technofunctional ingredients or as a source of bioactive hydrolysates and peptides for functional foods and nutraceuticals.