Motivation, knowledge, vegan literacy - and cheese

Introduction

Although vegan and vegetarian diets and lifestyles differ significantly from each other, among other things, notably in their respective consequences regarding animal welfare and their ecological impact, vegans and vegetarians are often grouped together and usually compared to omnivores in psychological research. Considering that vegans and vegetarians often share similar motives for their lifestyle choices, namely animal and environmental issues, the question arises why similar motives lead to different conclusions and correspondingly different behaviors, most notably, of course, that vegetarians consume animal-derived foods such as cheese or milk while vegans do not consume animal-derived products (e.g., food, cosmetic products). This is why this study explored the psychological differences between vegans, vegetarians, and prospective vegans - the latter group being located in an intermediate, transitionary position. Focusing on the motivational, affective and cognitive components of dietary transition and participants' adherence to eating patterns, reasons for said patterns, possible hinderances to becoming vegan, the role of participants' social environments, and the impact of various misconceptions regarding the feasibility of a vegan diet in everyday life were all explored.

Methods

An observational study was conducted via online questionnaire (1420 participants).

Results

Significant differences were found between vegans, prospective vegans, and vegetarians, especially concerning their knowledge of issues pertaining to their respective lifestyles.

Discussion

The critical role of knowledge is invoked as an explanation as to why vegans and vegetarians display different behaviors although they share a similar motivation. Thus, in this study the concept of vegan literacy is introduced. Additionally, the distinctive role of cheese is explored, discussing possible indications of its potentially addictive nature and, consequently, the importance of cheese as a hindering factor for pursuing a vegan diet.

Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Individuals Following Plant-Based Dietary Patterns Compared to Regular Meat-Eaters

Plant-based diets (PBDs) have been associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). The aim was to investigate the predicted 5-year and 10-year risk of developing CVD in individuals following PBDs compared to regular meat-eating diets. This cross-sectional study included n = 240 middle-aged adults habitually consuming dietary patterns for ≥6 months: vegan, lacto-ovo vegetarian (LOV), pesco-vegetarian (PV), semi-vegetarian (SV) or regular meat-eater (RME) (n = 48 per group). Predicted 5-year and 10-year CVD risks were quantified using the Framingham Risk Equation and the Australian Absolute CVD risk calculator, respectively. Multivariable regression analysis was used to adjust for age, sex, smoking status, physical activity, alcohol use and BMI. Over three-quarters of the participants were women, mean age of 53.8 yrs. After adjustments for potential confounders, there was no difference in the predicted risk of CVD between regular-meat diets and PBDs, although crude analyses revealed that vegans had a lower 5-year and 10-year predicted risk of CVD compared to RMEs. SVs, PVs and LOVs had lower CVD risk scores, however, not significantly. Vegans had a favourable cardiometabolic risk profile including significantly lower serum lipid levels, fasting blood glucose and dietary fats and higher dietary fibre intake compared to RMEs. This was the first study to purposefully sample Australians habitually following PBDs. We found that PBDs do not independently influence the predicted risk of CVD, although PBDs tended to have lower risk and vegans had significantly lower cardiometabolic risk factors for CVD.

In vitro digestibility and solubility of phosphorus of three plant-based meat analogues

Interest in plant-based meat analogues has increased and can be expected to be applied to pet foods, which necessitates the understanding of the nutrient supply in those foods. Our primary aim was to advance our understanding of the digestive properties of sterilized plant-based meat analogues. The impact of the preparatory processing steps on the solubility of meat analogues was studied. Meat analogues were made by mixing water, salt, and wheat gluten with soy protein isolate, pea protein isolate, or faba bean concentrate. Mixed materials were processed into model meat analogues using shear cell technology. Products were canned in water or gravy and sterilized. An animal-based canned pet food was made as a reference. Products sampled at the processing steps (mixing, shearing, sterilization) were digested in vitro. Samples of digestate were taken at the gastric phase (0 and 120 min) and small intestinal phase (120, 200, 280, and 360 min) for analysis of protein hydrolysis. The extent digestion of nitrogen and dry matter was determined at the end of incubation. Total phosphorus, soluble phosphorus after acid treatment, and after acid and enzymatic treatment were determined. The degree of hydrolysis after gastric digestion was low but increased immediately in the small intestinal phase; products based on pea had the highest values (56%). Nitrogen digestibility was above 90% for all materials at each processing step, indicating that bioactive compounds were absent or inactivated in the protein isolates and concentrate. Phytate seemed to play a minor role in meat analogues, but phosphorus solubility was influenced by processing. Shearing decreased soluble phosphorus, but this effect was partly reversed by sterilization. Nutrient digestibility as well as phosphorus solubility in plant-based products was higher than or comparable with the reference pet food. These findings show that the digestive properties of the tested plant-based meat analogues do not limit the supply of amino acids and phosphorus.

The effect of seed germination and Bacillus spp. on the ripening of plant cheese analogs

Consumer demand for plant cheeses is increasing, but challenges of improving both flavor and quality remain. This study investigated the microbiological and physicochemical impact of seed germination and fermentation with Bacillus velezensis and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens on the ripening of plant cheese analogs. Chlorine treatment or addition of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and Lactococcus lactis controlled microbial growth during seed germination. Lp. plantarum and Lc. lactis also served as starter cultures for the acidification of soy and lupine milk and were subsequently present in the unripened plant cheese as dominant microbes. Acidification also inhibited the growth and metabolic activity of bacilli but Bacillus spores remained viable throughout ripening. During plant cheese ripening, Lc. lactis was inactivated before Lp. plantarum and the presence of bacilli during seed germination delayed Lc. lactis inactivation. Metagenomic sequencing of full-length 16S rRNA gene amplicons confirmed that the relative abundance of the inoculated strains in each ripened cheese sample exceeded 99%. Oligosaccharides including raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose were rapidly depleted in the initial stage of ripening. Both germination and the presence of bacilli during seed germination had impact on polysaccharide hydrolysis during ripening. Bacilli but not seed germination enhanced proteolysis of plant cheese during ripening. In conclusion, the use of germination with lactic acid bacteria in combination with Bacillus spp. exhibited the potential to improve the quality of ripened plant cheeses with a positive effect on the reduction of hygienic risks.

IMPORTANCE

The development of novel plant-based fermented food products for which no traditional templates exist requires the development of starter cultures. Although the principles of microbial flavor formation in plant-based analogs partially overlap with dairy fermentations, the composition of the raw materials and thus likely the selective pressure on the activity of starter cultures differs. Experiments that are described in this study explored the use of seed germination, the use of lactic acid bacteria, and the use of bacilli to reduce hygienic risks, to acidify plant milk, and to generate taste-active compounds through proteolysis and fermentative conversion of carbohydrates. The characterization of fermentation microbiota by culture-dependent and culture-independent methods also confirmed that the starter cultures used were able to control microbial communities throughout 90 d of ripening. Taken together, the results provide novel tools for the development of plant-based analogs of fermented dairy products.

The Role of Dietary Acid Load on Progression of Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate Among Individuals Diagnosed With Chronic Kidney Disease

OBJECTIVE

Individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at an increased risk for developing metabolic acidosis. Metabolic acidosis has been shown to worsen kidney function and exacerbate systemic inflammation. Diets high in protein foods can exacerbate metabolic acidosis as protein foods tend to be more acidic, while fruits and vegetables are more alkalotic. The main objective of this systematic review was to determine if higher consumption of fruits and vegetables in adults with CKD stages 1-5 reduces the rate of decline of estimated glomerular filtration rate.

METHODS

Searches of Cumulated Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL -Elton B. Stephens Company [EBSCO]), Cochrane Library (Wiley), Dissertation & Thesis Global (ProQuest), Embase (Elsevier), Medline (OVID), PubMed (National Library of Medicine), Scopus (Elsevier), and Web of Sciences (Clarivate) identified 1,451 articles published between January 2015 and June 2023.

RESULTS

After independent review, 7 total studies were included. Six of the studies found an association between dietary acid load and progression of CKD.

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary counseling focusing on decreasing dietary acid load may be beneficial for individuals with CKD.

Post hoc analysis of food costs associated with Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet, whole food, plant-based diet, and typical baseline diet of individuals with insulin-treated type 2 diabetes mellitus in a nonrandomized crossover trial with meals provided

BACKGROUND

Americans consume diets that fall short of dietary recommendations, and the cost of healthier diets is often cited as a barrier to dietary change. We conducted a nonrandomized crossover trial with meals provided utilizing 2 diets: Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) and whole food, plant-based (WFPB), and thus had intake data from baseline and both intervention diets.

OBJECTIVES

Using actual diet records, describe food costs of baseline diets of individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) as well as therapeutic DASH and WFPB diets.

METHODS

Three-day food records were collected and analyzed for each 7-d diet phase: baseline, DASH, and WFPB. Nutrient content was analyzed using the Nutrient Data System for Research and cost was determined using Fillet, an application to manage menu pricing. Food costs were calculated for each diet as consumed and adjusted to a standardized 1800 kcal/d. Ingredient-only costs of food away from home (FAFH) were approximated and analyzed. Costs were analyzed using linear mixed-effect models as a function of diet.

RESULTS

Fifteen subjects enrolled; 12 completed all dietary phases. The baseline, DASH, and WFPB diets, as consumed, cost $15.72/d (95% CI; $13.91, $17.53), $12.74/d ($11.23, $14.25), and $9.78/d ($7.97, $11.59), respectively. When adjusted to an 1800 kcal/d intake, the baseline, DASH, and WFPB diets cost $15.69/d ($13.87, $17.52), $14.92/d ($13.59, $16.26), and $11.96/d ($10.14, $13.78), respectively. When approximated ingredient-only costs of FAFH were analyzed, as consumed baseline [$11.01 ($9.53, $12.49)] and DASH diets [$11.81 ($10.44, $13.18)] had similar costs; WFPB diet [$8.83 ($7.35, $10.31)] cost the least.

CONCLUSIONS

In this short-term study with meals provided, the food costs of plant-predominant diets offering substantial metabolic health benefits were less than or similar to baseline food costs of adults with insulin-treated T2DM. Longer-term data without meal provision are needed for more generalizable results. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT04048642.

Plant-Based Diets in Children: Secular Trends, Health Outcomes, and a Roadmap for Urgent Practice Recommendations and Research-A Systematic Review

People are increasingly encouraged to reduce animal food consumption and shift towards plant-based diets; however, the implications for children's health are unclear. In this narrative review of research in high-income settings, we summarize evidence on the increasing consumption of plant-based diets in children and update an earlier systematic review regarding their associations with children's health outcomes. The evidence indicates that vegan, but not vegetarian, diets can restrict growth relative to omnivorous children and increase the risk of being stunted and underweight, although the percentage affected is relatively small. Bone mineral content is reduced in vegetarian and, in particular, vegan children, compared to omnivores. Both vegetarian and vegan children who do not use vitamin B12 supplements manifest with B12 deficiency; however, supplementation rectifies this problem. Both vegetarians and vegans have lower concentrations of 25(OH)D if unsupplemented, and lower body iron stores, but usually have normal iron metabolism markers. Both groups are at risk of iodine deficiency, and this might affect thyroid health. Children consuming a vegan diet have a more favorable lipid profile than omnivorous children; however, the results for a vegetarian diet are inconsistent and vary by outcome. Based on the same scientific evidence, national and international dietary recommendations are heterogeneous, with some countries supporting plant-based diets among infants, children, and adolescents, and others discouraging them. We offer a research roadmap, highlighting what is needed to provide adequate evidence to harmonize dietary recommendations for plant-based diets in children. A number of measures should urgently be introduced at international and national levels to improve the safety of their use in children.

Evaluation of rheological, textural, and sensory characteristics of optimized vegan rice puddings prepared by various plant-based milks

Nowadays, plant-based milks are being considered as an alternative to dairy milk due to their advantages, such as sustainability, reduced allergenicity, health benefits, and lactose-free nature. Plant-based milks are widely used in the preparation of desserts, cheese-like products, and beverages, among other applications. The aim of the present study was to formulate vegan rice puddings using various commercially available plant-based milks as a sustainable alternative to dairy milk. For this aim, central composition design was applied to optimize the key processing parameters of the Thermomix®, including temperature (80-90°C), time (6-14 min), and the amount of rice flour (6-10%, w/v), using response surface methodology (RSM). According to the RSM results, the optimum conditions were found to be 90°C for 12.5 min with 6.5% rice flour, as they exhibited minimal phase separation and similar rheological and textural properties to dairy rice pudding. Soya milk pudding had the highest hardness value among the other plant-based milk puddings, and whole fat milk, soya, oat, coconut, and cow's milks showed the best gel unity, according to the cohesiveness results. Phase separation, an important parameter for storage stability, was not observed during 7-day storage at 4°C in all groups, except for pistachio milk rice pudding. Rheological results demonstrated that all vegan pudding samples exhibited a gel-like structure with storage modulus (G') exceeding loss modulus (G″) values. According to the descriptive sensory evaluation, coconut, oat, and soya milk rice puddings received the highest scores in overall acceptability. Our findings suggest that industrial plant-based rice puddings have great potential as a novel product that meets the dietary needs of the vegan community by offering acceptable flavor and texture.

Can a Fraction of Flour and Sugar Be Replaced with Fruit By-Product Extracts in a Gluten-Free and Vegan Cookie Recipe?

Certain food by-products, including not-good-for-sale apples and pomegranate peels, are rich in bioactive molecules that can be collected and reused in food formulations. Their extracts, rich in pectin and antioxidant compounds, were obtained using hydrodynamic cavitation (HC), a green, efficient, and scalable extraction technique. The extracts were chemically and physically characterized and used in gluten-free and vegan cookie formulations to replace part of the flour and sugar to study whether they can mimic the role of these ingredients. The amount of flour + sugar removed and replaced with extracts was 5% and 10% of the total. Physical (dimensions, color, hardness, moisture content, water activity), chemical (total phenolic content, DPPH radical-scavenging activity), and sensory characteristics of cookie samples were studied. Cookies supplemented with the apple extract were endowed with similar or better characteristics compared to control cookies: high spread ratio, similar color, and similar sensory characteristics. In contrast, the pomegranate peel extract enriched the cookies in antioxidant molecules but significantly changed their physical and sensory characteristics: high hardness value, different color, and a bitter and astringent taste. HC emerged as a feasible technique to enable the biofortification of consumer products at a real scale with extracts from agri-food by-products.

Case series: raw, whole, plant-based nutrition protocol rapidly reverses symptoms in three women with systemic lupus erythematosus and Sjögren's syndrome

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and Sjögren's syndrome (SS) are chronic autoimmune diseases. Symptoms of SLE can vary widely but often include fatigue, pain, photosensitivity, and, in some cases, nephritis. SS is frequently characterized by extreme dry eye and mouth, resulting from damage to moisture-producing glands, and is often present in combination with SLE. While the health benefits of plant-based diets have been well-established with respect to weight and cardiometabolic outcomes, less research is available to support the role of diet in treatment and management of autoimmune disease. This case series presents three women with SLE and SS who adopted a nutrition protocol to reverse symptoms of autoimmune disease. The protocol emphasizes leafy greens, cruciferous vegetables, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and water, and includes predominately raw foods. The three patients reported dramatic improvements in physical symptoms, with nearly all symptoms of SLE and SS resolving after 4 weeks or less of adhering to the protocol. All three patients have remained symptom-free, two of whom have remained symptom-free for 6+ years with no recent medication use. Patients and practitioners should be made aware of the promising possibility of food as medicine in the treatment of SLE and SS. Future research should explore whether dietary changes may be a potential treatment strategy for individuals suffering from severe symptoms and poor quality of life due to SLE and SS.

Investigating the Probiotic Potential of Vegan Puree Mixture: Viability during Simulated Digestion and Bioactive Compound Bioaccessibility

This study aimed to develop a fermented puree mixture containing plant-based ingredients and potential probiotic strains Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosusK3 and Lactobacillus johnsonii K4. The survival of potential probiotic strains, changes in sugar and organic acid concentrations, bioaccessibility of polyphenols, and antioxidant capacity after simulated digestion were examined with sensory quality. The mixture of apple puree, chia seeds, and oat bran or oat flakes was fermented. The sensory quality of the puree mixture was assessed by the quantitative descriptive profile (QDP) method. In vitro digestion was simulated using a static gastrointestinal model. Antioxidant capacity and total polyphenol content were analyzed before and after the digestion phases. All samples changed sensory profiles after fermentation. The overall quality was above six out of ten for every product. Fermentation also changed the organic acid composition, with significant increases in lactic, succinic, and acetic acids. After the digestion process, the survival rate remained above 5.8 log10 CFU/g. As a result of fermentation with potential probiotics, the bioaccessibility of the total phenolics and antioxidant activity increased. These results showed that the addition of potential probiotic strains increases nutritional value and could help with healthy nourishment habits. This knowledge can guide the development of consumer-satisfying products in the food industry, expanding the probiotic food market with innovative alternatives.

Bone Remodelling, Vitamin D Status, and Lifestyle Factors in Spanish Vegans, Lacto-Ovo Vegetarians, and Omnivores

Sustainable healthy diets are promoted, and consequently vegetarian diets are currently increasing. However, scientific information on their effects on bone health is scarce. A cross-sectional study was performed in adults (66% women) classified into three groups: omnivores (n = 93), lacto-ovo vegetarians (n = 96), and vegans (n = 112). Nutrient intake, body composition, physical activity, vitamin D status (25-hydroxycholecalciferol, 25-OHD), parathormone (PTH), and bone formation (bone alkaline phosphatase, BAP) and resorption (N-telopeptides of type I collagen, NTx) markers were determined. Lacto-ovo vegetarians and especially vegans showed lower protein, fat, calcium, phosphorous, vitamin D, retinol, iodine, and zinc intakes, and higher carbohydrate, fibre, carotenes, magnesium, and vitamin K intakes compared to omnivores. Body composition was similar in the three groups that performed vigorous physical activity regularly. Body bone mass and muscle mass were positively correlated with BAP, and time performing physical activity with 25-OHD. The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency (25-OHD < 75 nmol/L) was 93.7% in the studied population, and vitamin D deficiency (25-OHD < 25 nmol/L) was significantly higher in vegans. Vegetarians of both groups had increased PTH and NTx with vegans showing significantly higher PTH and NTx than omnivores. Conclusion: Adult vegetarians, especially vegans, should reduce the risk of bone loss by appropriate diet planning and vitamin D supplementation.

Plant-Based Diets and Metabolic Syndrome Components: The Questions That Still Need to Be Answered-A Narrative Review

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is defined as the co-occurrence of at least three of the following metabolic disorders: abdominal obesity, hypertriglyceridemia, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), high blood glucose, and hypertension. The treatment of MetS involves lifestyle changes, including following an appropriate diet. In addition to weight reduction, it is crucial to search for optimal nutritional patterns that are highly effective in optimizing other MetS markers, such as glucose and lipid metabolism, and reducing blood pressure. To date, the effects of a Mediterranean diet and Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet on MetS have been extensively evaluated. Recent epidemiological studies suggest that plant-based diets (PBDs) may be effective in treating MetS; however, there is still a lack of experimental data. This review aims to analyze the potential benefits of different PBDs on MetS determinants based on the available studies. The findings may help personalize dietary interventions and improve patient care for those with MetS.

Candida Pneumonia in a Young Vegan Man with Diabetic Ketoacidosis

A 39-year-old vegan man was admitted with diabetic ketoacidosis. He had also developed pneumonia that was unresponsive to antibiotics. Based on bronchoscopy findings, the diagnosis of Candida pneumonia was made, and the pulmonary shadow disappeared rapidly after antifungal therapy. Candida pneumonia has been mostly reported in severely immunocompromised patients. This is a rare case of Candida pneumonia that was found in a young vegan man with diabetes mellitus (DM). Although malnutrition caused by DM or an unbalanced diet is often underestimated as a cause of immunodeficiency, these conditions can be risk factors for serious opportunistic infections, including Candida pneumonia.

Modeling Ovo-vegetarian, Lacto-vegetarian, Pescatarian, and Vegan USDA Food Patterns and Assessing Nutrient Adequacy for Lactation among Adult Females

Background

Among its recommended dietary patterns for Americans, including lactating mothers, the 2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) includes a Healthy Vegetarian Dietary Pattern (HVDP). However, the DGA does not provide guidance for adapting the HVDP for vegetarians who avoid dairy (ovo-vegetarian) or eggs (lacto-vegetarian), eat fish (pescatarians), or avoid all animal foods (vegan).

Objective

To determine whether models of the HVDP for different vegetarian diets could provide sufficient nutrition during lactation, a life stage with unique nutrient needs.

Methods

Adaptations of the HVDP were developed at the 2200 and 2400 kcal levels using similar methods to the 2020 DGA. We compared these models with both the original HVDP and Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for women ages 19 to 30 and ages 31 to 50 during lactation mo 1 to 12. All models were developed both with and without the addition of a multivitamin and -mineral prenatal supplement, commonly consumed by women throughout lactation.

Results

All models (original HVDP, ovo-vegetarian, lacto-vegetarian, pescatarian, vegan) at all energy levels met the Adequate Macronutrient Distribution Ranges. Like the original HVDP and other dietary patterns in the DGA, the vegetarian adaptations in this study did not contain enough vitamin D, vitamin E, or choline to meet DRIs across all models and energy levels. With the prenatal supplement added, the models did not contain enough sodium, vitamin D, or choline. Some models also contained < 100% of the DRIs for sodium, zinc, vitamin A, and vitamin B6. Amounts of all other micronutrients met DRIs.

Conclusions

Adaptations of the HVDP can provide adequate amounts of most nutrients, including nutrients of concern, during lactation to meet the needs of mothers during this life stage.

Adoption of a Short-Term (4-Week) Vegan Diet as Part of 'Veganuary' Significantly Reduces Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA), Cholesterol, B12, and Iodine Intake in Omnivorous Individuals-An Observational Study

Global veganism campaigns like 'Veganuary' have gained popularity. We conducted an observational study to assess the impact of a 4-week vegan diet during 'Veganuary' on nutrient intake, status, knowledge, and motivations for veganism. Data were collected before and after 'Veganuary', using Food Frequency Questionnaires (FFQs) to estimate dietary intake. Micronutrient knowledge and motivation were assessed through questionnaires. A total of 154 UK adults aged 18-60 years (2019: n81; 2020: n73) participated. Groups were vegetarians and omnivores committed to a 4-week vegan diet during 'Veganuary'. Control groups were vegans and omnivores who did not transition. Short-term vegan diets significantly decreased intake of iodine, B12, cholesterol, and saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in omnivores. Micronutrient knowledge was low, and motivation for veganism varied. Short-term vegan diets reduce macro- and micronutrient intake in omnivores. Veganuary participants could benefit from nutritional guidance or supplementation. Attention is required for UK micronutrient intake and knowledge. Motivations for vegan pledges may influence diets, warranting further research.

A cross-sectional study of nutritional status in healthy, young, physically-active German omnivores, vegetarians and vegans reveals adequate vitamin B12 status in supplemented vegans

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Plant-based diets reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease but also increase the risk of certain micronutrient deficiencies, particularly, of vitamin B12 (B12). The extent to which the unsupervised use of oral nutrient supplements is sufficient to prevent these deficiencies is not well established. We analyzed nutrient intake, laboratory biomarkers, supplementation behavior, and B12 status adequacy amongst young, healthy, physically active omnivores, lacto-ovo-vegetarians and vegans from Germany.

METHODS

We recruited 115 participants (n = 40 omnivores; n = 37 lacto-ovo-vegetarians, and n = 38 vegans) with comparable age, sex, marital status, physical activity and educational levels through online advertisements and local newspapers in Freiburg, Germany.

RESULTS

Energy intake and macronutrient distribution were comparable across diets. Major differences included intake of fiber, cholesterol, and several vitamins. Vegans had the lowest intake of B12 from foods (0.43 (0.58) µg/d), compared to omnivores (2.14 (2.29) µg/d) and lacto-ovo-vegetarians (0.98 (1.34) µg/day). Multivariate analysis of 36 blood biomarkers revealed that three major classes of biomarkers contributed the most to the clustering of individuals by dietary group, namely, biomarkers of B12 status (B12, holoTC, Hcy), iron (iron, ferritin, transferrin) and lipid metabolism (vitamin A, HDL, LDL, total cholesterol, TAG). This suggests that nutrients that modify the metabolic pathways represented by these biomarkers have the most penetrating effect on health status across diets. Analysis of B12 status (including 4cB12) revealed adequacy in omnivores and vegans, and a poorer B12 status amongst lacto-ovo-vegetarians. Fewer lacto-ovo-vegetarians used B12 supplements compared to vegans (51% versus 90%).

CONCLUSIONS

Even amongst homogeneously healthy Germans, each diet manifested with measurable differences in dietary intakes and biomarkers of health. Plant-based diets, in particular the vegan diet, exhibited the most favorable patterns of lipid metabolism and glycemic control, but the lowest food intake of B12. Supplementation of healthy vegans with B12 (median 250 µg B12/day, over 2 years) secured an adequate B12 status that was comparable to that of healthy omnivores.Clinical Trial Registry: German Clinical Trial register number: DRKS00027425.

Nutrient Intake and Status in Children and Adolescents Consuming Plant-Based Diets Compared to Meat-Eaters: A Systematic Review

Health authorities increasingly recommend sustainable and healthy diets rich in plant foods and with moderate amounts of animal foods. However, there are concerns about whether such diets can meet all nutrient requirements, especially in children and adolescents, who have relatively high nutrient needs for growth and development. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the nutrient intake and status of children and adolescents (2-18 y) consuming plant-based (i.e., vegetarian and vegan) diets compared to those of meat-eating children following a systematic literature review of studies published between 2000 and 2022. Mean intake and status data of nutrients were calculated across studies and benchmarked to dietary reference values and cut-off values for nutrient deficiencies. A total of 30 studies were included (15 in children 2-5 y, 24 in children 6-12 y, and 11 in adolescents 13-18 y). In all diets, there were risks of inadequate intakes of vitamin D and calcium. Children consuming meat had a risk of inadequate folate and vitamin E intake; and mean fiber, SAFA, and PUFA intakes were not in line with the recommendations. Children consuming plant-based diets risked inadequate vitamin B12, iron, and zinc intakes. In contrast to vegans, vegetarian children may not meet the recommended intakes of fiber, SAFA, and possibly PUFA, but their mean intakes were more favorable than in meat-eating children. Although the data are limited and need further validation, our findings indicate that there are risks of nutritional inadequacies in all diet groups. Therefore, increasing consumption of a variety of plant-based foods, in combination with food fortification and supplementation where needed, is recommended for children and adolescents to have sustainable and nutritionally adequate diets.

The role of a starch-based diet in solving existential challenges for the 21st century

Diet plays a fundamental role in our major chronic diseases, in climate change, and in our resistance to infectious diseases. The eating patterns that best support the health of people and our planet are based on traditional starchy staples. Historically, a wide variety of starches have provided the bulk of the food for most of the people who have walked our Earth. For example, rice has been food for Asians, corn for Central Americans, potatoes for people of the Andes, and for the Middle East, "the bread basket of the world," food has meant wheat and barley. Focusing on our ethnicities can expose altruistic natures, and before it is too late, allow us to make the change from destructive animal-food based-diets to plant-food based-diets; ones that are health-supporting for people and our planet.

The Impact of Different Types of Diet on the Prevention of Diseases among Polish Inhabitants, Including COVID-19 Disease

Proper nutrition may help in preventing deaths or at least alleviating the symptoms of many chronic diseases. While the COVID-19 disease was still taking its toll, the world had to adjust to new life conditions, which could change nutritional habits. In this observational, cross-sectional study, we aimed to identify the potential correlations between sociodemographic factors and diet and the presence of common chronic diseases among Polish inhabitants. Furthermore, we tried to determine whether the COVID-19 pandemic led to changes in nutritional habits. Therefore, based on the online study (the National Test for Poles' Health (NTPH), we collected data from 376,102 and 200,000 respondents in two different time frames (before the COVID-19 pandemic: 2019-2020 and during the COVID-19 pandemic: 2021-2022, respectively). Despite the rapid global rise of the COVID-19 pandemic, among our study group, hypertension was still the most commonly occurring disease in both time frames (32.33% in 2019-2020 and 34.95% in 2021-2022, p < 0.001). Furthermore, more chronic diseases were reported during the COVID-19 pandemic than in 2019-2020. Regarding sociodemographic factors, male respondents were more likely to develop hypertension and diabetes (OR = 1.35 CI 95% (1.28-1.43), p < 0.001; and OR = 1.20 CI 95% (1.11-1.30), p < 0.001). Vegetarian diet decreases the likelihood of hypertension, neurological disease, and diabetes (OR = 0.69, CI 95% (0.60-0.81), p < 0.001; OR = 0.72, CI 95% (0.59-0.88), p = 0.001; and OR = 0.73, CI 95% (0.55-0.96), p = 0.026). In line with this, consuming meat meals increases the risk of hypertension (OR = 1.09, CI 95% (1.02-1.17), p = 0.009). Interestingly, a reduced-sodium diet has an association with decreased morbidity of COVID-19 disease (OR = 0.72, CI 95% (0.63-0.82), p < 0.001). This result brings new light to more research to be done to allow efficient prevention of this disease. In conclusion, our study shows the beneficial role of a balanced diet in reducing the incidence rate of common chronic diseases. Our findings may be educational for those who would like to change their nutritional habits and/or for public health professionals to suggest the implementation of proper diets to their patients.

Foaming with Starch: Exploring Faba Bean Aquafaba as a Green Alternative

The demand for sustainable and functional plant-based products is on the rise. Plant proteins and polysaccharides often provide emulsification and stabilization properties to food and food ingredients. Recently, chickpea cooking water, also known as aquafaba, has gained popularity as a substitute for egg whites in sauces, food foams, and baked goods due to its foaming and emulsifying capacities. This study presents a modified eco-friendly process to obtain process water from faba beans and isolate and characterize the foam-inducing components. The isolated material exhibits similar functional properties, such as foaming capacity, to aquafaba obtained by cooking pulses. To isolate the foam-inducing component, the faba bean process water was mixed with anhydrous ethanol, and a precipitated fraction was obtained. The precipitate was easily dissolved, and solutions prepared with the alcohol precipitate retained the foaming capacity of the original extract. Enzymatic treatment with α-amylase or protease resulted in reduced foaming capacity, indicating that both protein and carbohydrates contribute to the foaming capacity. The dried precipitate was found to be 23% protein (consisting of vicilin, α-legumin, and β-legumin) and 77% carbohydrate (amylose). Future investigations into the chemical structure of this foam-inducing agent can inform the development of foaming agents through synthetic or enzymatic routes. Overall, this study provides a potential alternative to aquafaba and highlights the importance of exploring plant-based sources for functional ingredients in the food industry.

Exploring Vegan Mothers' Experiences of Making Food Choices for Infants and Young Children

OBJECTIVE

Our study aimed to explore vegan mothers' experiences and decision-making processes when feeding their children (up to 3 years old).

METHODS

We conducted a qualitative photo-elicitation interview study in the United Kingdom. Eight vegan mothers provided 5 photographs of food choices they had made for their children and completed online photo-elicitation interviews to discuss these images. Data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Five themes were developed: role modeling eating behavior, shared decision-making, nutritional guidance for vegan parents, fear of judgment for being vegan, and desire for convenience.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Findings illustrate the complexity of the decision-making process and highlight the need for targeted resources for vegan parents. There is a need for awareness raising and training for health care professionals and the development of vegan-specific child-feeding resources to facilitate the provision of evidence-based nutritional guidance for vegan parents.

Analysis of Eight Types of Plant-based Milk Alternatives from the United States Market for Target Minerals and Trace Elements

A wide variety of commercial plant-based foods that are marketed and sold as alternatives for milk (plant-based milk alternatives or PBMAs) are available to consumers. In this study, PBMAs from the United States (n=85) were subjected to analysis for target minerals (magnesium, phosphorus, selenium, and zinc) to compare their variability across PBMA types, brands, and production lots. Samples were also screened for the environmental contaminant elements arsenic, cadmium, and lead. The eight PBMA types sampled were produced from almond, cashew, coconut, hemp, oat, pea, rice, and soy. Elemental analysis was conducted using microwave-assisted acid digestion followed by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. The results showed that pea PBMAs contained the highest mean amounts of phosphorus, selenium, and zinc, while soy PBMAs were highest in magnesium. Mean amounts of minerals were lower than those found in milk for the majority of PBMA types. There was significant variation (P<0.05) in amounts of minerals across the majority of product brands. The amounts of phosphorus and magnesium varied across production lots (P<0.05), but the absolute value of these differences was low. Total arsenic was highest in rice PBMAs; amounts of cadmium and lead across PBMAs were generally found at low or non-quantifiable amounts. These results underscore the importance of generating analytical data on the elemental composition of products within the rapidly growing category of PBMA.

Nutritional practices and experiences of people on vegan diet with healthcare system: a qualitative study

OBJECTIVES

The growing popularity of diets that restrict the consumption of animal-based foods is an important new challenge for the public healthcare system in Czechia. While the environmental and health-related benefits of plant-based diets are widely discussed in the media, people who follow these diets may lack professional support in terms of nutritional advice and even access to healthcare. The present study aims to map the nutritional practices and experiences with the healthcare system of people in Czechia who follow vegan diets.

METHODS

In a qualitative study we conducted semi-structured interviews with twenty-one self-reported adult vegans (14 women and 7 men; 18 with university education) who were on a vegan diet for at least a year. We were specifically interested in their motivation for why and how they became vegans; their everyday diet and eating routines; their use of health care and experiences with medical professionals; their nutritional knowledge and use of supplementation; and their perception of their health and embodiment.

RESULTS

The primary motivations for going vegan are ethical, environmental and health-related. Vegans see themselves and their diet as generally healthier, but for this to be true they must spend a considerable amount of time researching nutritional requirements and what dietary supplements they need. To this end, they tend to rely mainly on non-medical sources of information. Because of the lack of acceptance of veganism among primary-care physicians, vegans tend not to seek out medical advice or tell their doctor about their eating habits in order to avoid conflicts and negative experiences.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified a perceived lack of accessible educational materials and potentially limited access to primary healthcare recommendations for people who eliminate the consumption of animal-based foods. These findings deserve further research and public health risk-mitigation strategies.

Scoping review of the association of plant-based diet quality with health outcomes

Introduction

The association of plant-based dietary patterns with health outcomes has traditionally been assessed without considering nutritional value. The plant-based dietary index (PDI), first published in 2016, overcomes this limitation with both a healthful PDI (hPDI) and an unhealthful PDI (uPDI), based on the quality of plant foods consumed plus the frequency of animal foods. We sought to summarize the breadth of research using the hPDI and uPDI to gain insight into how the quality of plant-based dietary patterns might be associated with health outcomes.

Methods

Scoping review of studies that used the PDI, hPDI, or uPDI to report associations with health outcomes. Multiple databases were searched from 2010 through April 2023 with 2 authors independently assessing eligibility and extracting data. In addition to assessing the association of the indices to health outcomes, we determined the frequency of concordant or discordant findings for hPDI versus PDI and for hPDI versus uPDI.

Results

We included 95 articles (54% longitudinal, 37% cross-sectional, and 9% case-control) with a median sample size of 3,646. Higher hPDI levels were associated with favorable health outcomes in 36% of comparisons (most often for obesity, mortality, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and psychiatric disorders), compared to 25% for the PDI and only 2% for the uPDI. Conversely, higher levels of the uPDI were associated with unfavorable health outcomes in 33% of comparisons, in contrast to under 1% for the hPDI and 2% for the PDI. When the hPDI association to an outcome was discordant with the uPDI or PDI, the significance and directionality always favored the hPDI over the uPDI, and nearly always favored the hPDI over the PDI.

Discussion

Dietary indices that account for the quality of plant foods can show health benefits that might be missed by a generic plant-based index. A greater focus on the quality of plant foods could improve nutrition guidelines, raise awareness about the benefits of adding unrefined plant foods to the diet, and empower consumers to make incremental additions of such foods to displace unhealthy foods. We anticipate increasing use of indices that address food quality in future research.

Popular Dietary Trends' Impact on Athletic Performance: A Critical Analysis Review

BACKGROUND

Nutrition fuels optimal performance for athletes. With increased research developments, numerous diets available, and publicity from professional athletes, a review of dietary patterns impact on athletic performance is warranted.

RESULTS

The Mediterranean diet is a low inflammatory diet linked to improved power and muscle endurance and body composition. Ketogenic diets are restrictive of carbohydrates and proteins. Though both show no decrements in weight loss, ketogenic diets, which is a more restrictive form of low-carbohydrate diets, can be more difficult to follow. High-protein and protein-paced versions of low-carbohydrate diets have also shown to benefit athletic performance. Plant-based diets have many variations. Vegans are at risk of micronutrient deficiencies and decreased leucine content, and therefore, decreased muscle protein synthesis. However, the literature has not shown decreases in performance compared to omnivores. Intermittent fasting has many different versions, which may not suit those with comorbidities or specific needs as well as lead to decreases in sprint speed and worsening time to exhaustion.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper critically evaluates the research on diets in relation to athletic performance and details some of the potential risks that should be monitored. No one diet is universally recommend for athletes; however, this article provides the information for athletes to analyze, in conjunction with medical professional counsel, their own diet and consider sustainable changes that can help achieve performance and body habitus goals.

Differences in the Stool Metabolome between Vegans and Omnivores: Analyzing the NIST Stool Reference Material

To gain confidence in results of omic-data acquisitions, methods must be benchmarked using validated quality control materials. We report data combining both untargeted and targeted metabolomics assays for the analysis of four new human fecal reference materials developed by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technologies (NIST) for metagenomics and metabolomics measurements. These reference grade test materials (RGTM) were established by NIST based on two different diets and two different samples treatments, as follows: firstly, homogenized fecal matter from subjects eating vegan diets, stored and submitted in either lyophilized (RGTM 10162) or aqueous form (RGTM 10171); secondly, homogenized fecal matter from subjects eating omnivore diets, stored and submitted in either lyophilized (RGTM 10172) or aqueous form (RGTM 10173). We used four untargeted metabolomics assays (lipidomics, primary metabolites, biogenic amines and polyphenols) and one targeted assay on bile acids. A total of 3563 compounds were annotated by mass spectrometry, including 353 compounds that were annotated in more than one assay. Almost half of all compounds were annotated using hydrophilic interaction chromatography/accurate mass spectrometry, followed by the lipidomics and the polyphenol assays. In total, 910 metabolites were found in at least 4-fold different levels in fecal matter from vegans versus omnivores, specifically for peptides, amino acids and lipids. In comparison, only 251 compounds showed 4-fold differences between lyophilized and aqueous fecal samples, including DG O-34:0 and methionine sulfoxide. A range of diet-specific metabolites were identified to be significantly different between vegans and omnivores, exemplified by citrinin and C17:0-acylcarnitine for omnivores, and curcumin and lenticin for vegans. Bioactive molecules like acyl alpha-hydroxy-fatty acids (AAHFA) were differentially regulated in vegan versus omnivore fecal materials, highlighting the importance of diet-specific reference materials for dietary biomarker studies.

Health behavior of Austrian tertiary students focusing on diet type linked to sports and exercise-first glimpse of results from the "sustainably healthy-from science 2 high school and university" study

Background

There is a strong association between lifestyle behavior and health status. While young adulthood is a critical period for adopting and stabilizing lifelong healthy behavior, university life is independently associated with psychological stressors that may further affect health and well-being.

Objective

The present multidisciplinary study aimed to examine the health behavior of Austrian college and university students, differentiated based on diet types (vegan, vegetarian, and omnivorous) and physical activity (PA) habits.

Methods

Following a cross-sectional study design, a total number of 6,148 students (65.3% females; 66.1% bachelor students, 67.0% from urban areas; mean age: 24.8 years) from 52 Austrian college/universities participated in an online survey and provided data on sociodemographic characteristics, dietary patterns, PA habits, and other lifestyle behavior characteristics, including alcohol intake and smoking.

Results

Across the total sample, 74.0% had a normal weight (BMI = 18.5-25.0 kg/m2), while the prevalence of overweight/obesity (BMI ≥ 30.0 kg/m2) was lower in females than males and more in rural than urban students (p < 0.01). The general prevalence of vegetarian and vegan diets was 22.8 and 6.0%, respectively, with a predominance of females, graduates, and urban students compared to their peers (p < 0.01). The majority of students (79.3%) had a regular engagement in sport/exercise, with a predominance of vegetarian or vegan students compared to omnivores (p < 0.01). Vegans and vegetarians had a lower alcohol intake (p < 0.01) but no differences in smoking habits (p > 0.05) compared to omnivores. Students engaging in sport/exercise had a lower smoking rate and higher intake of fruits, vegetables, and fluids compared to inactive students (p < 0.01).

Conclusion

The present findings suggest that diet type and PA habits of college/university students have an impact on other health behaviors, highlighting the interconnected nature of lifestyle habits and health behavior.

Nitrogen Balance at the Recommended Dietary Allowance for Protein in Minimally Active Male Vegans

Vegan diets have gained popularity in recent years for reasons including health benefits and concerns for animal welfare. Although these diets are considered to be nutritionally adequate, questions remain over whether the current protein recommendation (0.8 g/kg/d) is sufficient. Protein status is determined through a nitrogen balance analysis when the protein content of the diet is known. A negative balance indicates a catabolic state, and a positive nitrogen balance indicates an anabolic state. In healthy adults, nitrogen equilibrium is the expectation reflecting the net synthesis and breakdown of proteins. Currently, there are no known studies measuring nitrogen balance in strict vegan men fed the protein requirement. Eighteen minimally active vegan men received a 5-day eucaloric diet (protein content: 0.8 g/kg/d). On day five, 24 h urine was collected for nitrogen analysis. Both the mean absolute nitrogen balance (-1.38 ± 1.22 g/d) and the mean relative nitrogen balance (-18.60 ± 16.96 mg/kg/d) were significantly lower than zero (equilibrium) (p < 0.001). There were no correlations seen between nitrogen balance and age, years as vegan, or fat-free mass. Consuming 0.8 g/kg/d of protein is not adequate to produce nitrogen balance in men adhering to typical strict vegan diets for at least one year.

Vitamin B12 levels in children and adolescents on plant-based diets: a systematic review and meta-analysis

CONTEXT

The popularity of plant-based diets, characterized by a partial or complete exclusion of animal products, has increased significantly over the last 10 years. The exclusion of animal products removes the most common sources of vitamin B12, which can lead to vitamin B12 deficiency and result in irreversible damage, such as growth stunting.

OBJECTIVE

This aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to qualitatively evaluate all studies on this subject and to quantify the potential difference in vitamin B12 levels in healthy children and adolescents aged 5 to 18 years.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed and Embase databases were searched for relevant studies investigating vitamin B12 levels in healthy children and adolescents aged 5 to 18 years on plant-based diets.

DATA EXTRACTION

Studies were assessed qualitatively with the AXIS tool and quantitatively with Stata 16.0 software.

DATA ANALYSIS

Overall, children and adolescents on plant-based diets had a significantly lower vitamin B12 level than omnivorous children and adolescents (-97 pmol/L; 95%CI, -187 to -7; I2 = 98.5%), a difference that remained statistically significant after adjusting for methodological confounders. After subgroup analyses, this effect was not statistically significant for children and adolescents on vegetarian diets but remained significant in children and adolescents on vegan or macrobiotic diets. Moreover, total vitamin B12 intake nullified the mean difference in vitamin B12 levels.

CONCLUSION

Despite high heterogeneity across studies, these results indicate that children and adolescents on plant-based diets, especially those on vegan and macrobiotic diets, may be at risk of developing vitamin B12 deficiency.

A glimpse of academic staff health behavior on diet type and physical activity at Austrian universities: first findings from the "Sustainably Healthy - From Science 2 Highschool & University" study

Background

The association between lifestyle and health status highlights the importance of assessing health-related behavior in different populations. This multidisciplinary study aimed to examine the health behavior of academic staff of Austrian colleges and universities, with a specific focus on diet types (vegan, vegetarian, omnivorous) and physical activity (PA) reports.

Methods

Following a cross-sectional study design incorporating an online survey, a sample of 1,041 academics from 52 institutes (mean age: 46.4 years) provided data on sociodemographic characteristics, dietary patterns, PA behavior, and other lifestyle behaviors (smoking, alcohol intake, etc.).

Results

The prevalence of vegetarian and vegan diets was 13.2 and 2.0%, respectively, and 33.2% of participants had excess body weight (BMI ≥ 25). The majority of participants (88.5%) reported regularly engaging in leisure-time PA, but 18.6% were active members of sports clubs. No difference between females and males was observed in diet type and the type of sport participation (p > 0.05). Participants with a mixed diet had a higher BMI than vegetarians and vegans (p < 0.05). Leisure-time PA participation was associated with more frequent fruit and vegetable intake (p < 0.05). The prevalence of smoking and alcohol intake was 13.1 and 73.5%, respectively, without any difference between dietary or sports participation subgroups (p > 0.05).

Conclusion

The present study provides an overview of the social trends in vegan and vegetarian diets linked to health behaviors in tertiary educational settings. Findings can be used by health scientists, decision-makers, and multipliers in health and education to improve public health.

Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete

Accepting a continued rise in the prevalence of vegan-type diets in the general population is also likely to occur in athletic populations, it is of importance to assess the potential impact on athletic performance, adaptation, and recovery. Nutritional consideration for the athlete requires optimization of energy, macronutrient, and micronutrient intakes, and potentially the judicious selection of dietary supplements, all specified to meet the individual athlete's training and performance goals. The purpose of this review is to assess whether adopting a vegan diet is likely to impinge on such optimal nutrition and, where so, consider evidence based yet practical and pragmatic nutritional recommendations. Current evidence does not support that a vegan-type diet will enhance performance, adaptation, or recovery in athletes, but equally suggests that an athlete can follow a (more) vegan diet without detriment. A clear caveat, however, is that vegan diets consumed spontaneously may induce suboptimal intakes of key nutrients, most notably quantity and/or quality of dietary protein and specific micronutrients (eg, iron, calcium, vitamin B12, and vitamin D). As such, optimal vegan sports nutrition requires (more) careful consideration, evaluation, and planning. Individual/seasonal goals, training modalities, athlete type, and sensory/cultural/ethical preferences, among other factors, should all be considered when planning and adopting a vegan diet.

Mycoprotein as chicken meat substitute in nugget formulation: Physicochemical and sensorial characterization

The aim of this study was to replace chicken breast by mycoprotein in nuggets and optimizing the sensory and technological properties. In the first step of the study, 14 formulations were prepared by mixture design to evaluate the impact of three binding agents (as independent variables): soy protein isolate, phosphate, and carrageenan on sensory properties. Then, the optimized formulation of mycoprotein nugget (with higher acceptability) was characterized and compared to chicken nugget (control) from texture, color, and physicochemical aspects. The texture attributes including hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, and chewiness of the optimized sample (1.37 kg, 0.70 mm, 0.56, and 0.53 kg.mm) had no significant difference (p > .05) compared to control. Based on the results, optimized sample had a lower lightness and yellowness (a*, b*, and L* were 3.06, 18.62, and 59.23, respectively) rather than the similar value of the control (2.20, 21.27, and 79.10, respectively), which indicated carrageenan did not lead to any significant impact (p > .05) on the color. Also, mycoprotein nugget showed 33% lower cooking loss in comparison to control. Moisture, protein, lipid, and ash in optimized sample were 57.9 ± 1.9, 24.1 ± 1.0, 13.2 ± 1.2, and 2.1 ± 0.5, respectively. Investigation on physicochemical properties shows an acceptable characterization in optimized sample in comparison to control. The results of this study present an opportunity to produce nonmeat nuggets with similar texture and acceptable sensory and technological characteristics by using mycoprotein as meat alternative. The production of mycoprotein is eco-friendly, not dependent on climate (flood and drought) and landscape limitation, which is an important aspect in meat alternatives in the near future.

Meat-Rich Diets: A Secondary Data Analysis

Chronic low-grade metabolic acidosis is now a common phenomenon in the Western world. The high dietary intake of sulfur-containing amino acids in the form of processed meats results in an excessive release of acid in the form of protons and non-metabolizable acidic anions. The kidneys produce increasing amounts of ammonia to excrete this acid. This process requires the breakdown of the nitrogenous amino acid glutamine, which the body provides by breaking down muscle tissue. Hitherto not examined, we hypothesized that a high dietary acid load (DAL) could alter the serum concentrations of selected amino acids. Using secondary data from a 4-week dietary intervention study conducted in 2017, we examined the associations between various amino acids and DAL in n = 42 individuals who either consumed a meat-rich or vegan diet. Results from this secondary data analysis suggested that DAL (as measured by the potential renal acid load and net endogenous acid production) is positively correlated with higher serum concentrations of lysine and 1-methyl-histidine (r = 0.50 and 0.43, respectively) and negatively correlated with glutamine and glycine (r = -0.43 and -0.47, respectively). The inverse association with glycine and glutamine warrants special attention, as both play an important role in many metabolic disorders and the immune system.

Plant-Based Dietary Patterns and Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Australians: Protocol for a Cross-Sectional Study

Plant-based diets (PBDs) emphasise higher intakes of plant foods and lower intakes of animal foods, and they have been associated with reduced cardiovascular morbidity/mortality and lower cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. Evidence is limited regarding the dietary profile, diet quality, and nutritional adequacy of PBDs, including their impact on CVD risk compared with traditional meat-eating diets in Australians. The PBD Study (PBDS) is a cross-sectional study that will recruit 240 adults from the Hunter region (NSW) without known CVD who are habitually consuming vegan (no animal flesh/animal products), lacto-ovo vegetarian (dairy and/or eggs only), pesco-vegetarian (fish/seafood only), or semi-vegetarian (minimal animal flesh) diets or are a regular meat-eater. To investigate dietary profile, diet quality, nutritional adequacy, and CVD risk, questionnaires (medical history, demographics, and physical activity), blood samples (biomarkers), physical measures (anthropometry, blood pressure, body composition, and bone density), and dietary intake (food frequency questionnaire and diet history) will be collected. One-way ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis tests will compare the CVD risk and other quantitative measures, and Chi-square or Fisher's Exact tests will be used for qualitative data. Directed acyclic graphs will determine the confounding variables, and linear regression and mediation analyses will account for the confounders and estimate the effect of dietary patterns on CVD risk. p-values will be adjusted using the Benjamini-Hochberg method to control the False Discovery Rate to 5%.

Lipoprotein Lipase Activity Does Not Differ in the Serum Environment of Vegans and Omnivores

Although vegan diets have been reported to be associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, it was not known whether this might be partly due to vegan diets' effects on plasma triglyceride metabolism. This study aimed to investigate if there are differences in the activity of lipoprotein lipase (LPL), an enzyme that functions at the vascular endothelium and is responsible for triglyceride breakdown, in sera obtained from vegans and omnivores. LPL activity was assessed using isothermal titration calorimetry, which allows measurements in undiluted serum samples, mimicking physiological conditions. Fasted sera from 31 healthy participants (12F 2M vegans, 11F 6M omnivores) were analyzed. The results indicated no significant differences in average LPL activity between the vegan and omnivore groups. Interestingly, despite similar triglyceride levels, there were considerable variations in LPL activity and total very-low-density lipoprotein triglyceride breakdowns between individuals within both groups. Biomarker analysis showed that vegans had lower total cholesterol and LDL-C levels compared to omnivores. These findings suggest that the lipid-related benefits of a vegan diet, in terms of atherogenic risk, may primarily stem from cholesterol reduction rather than affecting serum as a medium for LPL-mediated triglyceride breakdown. In healthy individuals, lipid-related changes in serum composition in response to a vegan diet are likely overshadowed by genetic or other lifestyle factors.

The Impact of Plant-Based Diets on Dietary Acid Load Metrics in Venezuela: A Cross-Sectional Study

Dietary acid load (DAL) is an important determinant of the acid-base balance in humans and has been associated with several chronic non-communicable diseases. Plant-based diets, including vegetarian and vegan diets, decrease DAL-although their alkalizing potential varies substantially. Their net effect on common DAL scores, including potential renal acid load and net endogenous acid production, has been insufficiently quantified and is poorly understood-particularly in populations outside of Europe and North America. We assessed the associations between three plant-based dietary patterns (flexitarian vs. lacto-ovo-vegetarian vs. vegan diet) and DAL scores in a healthy Venezuelan population in the metropolitan area of Puerto La Cruz, Venezuela. Substantial differences in DAL scores were observed, whereby the vegan diet yielded the highest alkalizing potential, followed by the lacto-ovo-vegetarian and the flexitarian diet. DAL scores were substantially lower in comparison to European and North American plant-based populations, probably due to the higher potassium intake (exceeding 4000 mg/d in vegans), the higher magnesium intake (390.31 ± 1.79 mg/d in vegans) and the lower intake of protein in vegans and lacto-ovo-vegetarians. Additional studies in other non-industrialized populations are warranted to allow for a better understanding of the (numeric) impact of plant-based dietary patterns on DAL scores, potentially allowing for an establishment of reference ranges in the near future.

Dietary advanced glycation products and their associations with insulin sensitivity and body weight: A 16-week randomized clinical trial

Background

Evidence suggests that changes in advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) may influence body weight. Previous studies have focused on cooking methods as the primary way how to reduce the dietary AGEs but little is known about the effects of a change in diet composition.

Objective

The aim of this study was to assess the effects of a low-fat plant-based diet on dietary AGEs and test the association with body weight, body composition, and insulin sensitivity.

Methods

Participants who were overweight (n = 244) were randomly assigned to an intervention (low-fat plant-based) (n = 122) or control group (n = 122) for 16 weeks. Before and after the intervention period, body composition was measured by dual X-ray absorptiometry. Insulin sensitivity was assessed with the predicted insulin sensitivity index (PREDIM). Three-day diet records were analyzed using the Nutrition Data System for Research software and dietary AGEs were estimated, using a database. Repeated measure ANOVA was used for statistical analysis.

Results

Dietary AGEs decreased in the intervention group by 8768 ku/day on average (95% -9611 to -7925; p < 0.001), compared with the control group (-1608; 95% CI -2709 to -506; p = 0.005; treatment effect -7161 ku/day [95% CI -8540 to -5781]; Gxt, p < 0.001). Body weight decreased by 6.4 kg in the intervention group, compared with 0.5 kg in the control group (treatment effect -5.9 kg [95% CI -6.8 to -5.0]; Gxt, p < 0.001), largely due to a reduction in fat mass, notably visceral fat. PREDIM increased in the intervention group (treatment effect +0.9 [95% CI + 0.5 to +1.2]; p < 0.001). Changes in dietary AGEs correlated with changes in body weight (r = +0.41; p < 0.001), fat mass (r = +0.38; p < 0.001), visceral fat (r = +0.23; p < 0.001), and PREDIM (r = -0.28; p < 0.001), and remained significant even after adjustment for changes in energy intake (r = +0.35; p < 0.001 for body weight; r = +0.34; p < 0.001 for fat mass; r = +0.15; p = 0.03 for visceral fat; and r = -0.24; p < 0.001 for PREDIM).

Conclusions

Dietary AGEs decreased on a low-fat plant-based diet, and this decrease was associated with changes in body weight, body composition, and insulin sensitivity, independent of energy intake. These findings demonstrate positive effects of qualitative dietary changes on dietary AGEs and cardiometabolic outcomes.

Clinical Trial Registry Number

NCT02939638.

Could Gut Microbiota Composition Be a Useful Indicator of a Long-Term Dietary Pattern?

Despite the known effects of diet on gut microbiota composition, not many studies have evaluated the relationship between distinct dietary patterns and gut microbiota. The aim of our study was to determine whether gut microbiota composition could be a useful indicator of a long-term dietary pattern. We collected data from 89 subjects adhering to omnivorous, vegetarian, vegan, and low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet that were equally distributed between groups and homogenous by age, gender, and BMI. Gut microbiota composition was analyzed with a metabarcoding approach using V4 hypervariable region of the 16S rRNA gene. K-means clustering of gut microbiota at the genus level was performed and the nearest neighbor classifier was applied to predict microbiota clustering classes. Our results suggest that gut microbiota composition at the genus level is not a useful indicator of a subject's dietary pattern, with the exception of a vegan diet that is represented by a high abundance of Prevotella 9. Based on our model, a combination of 26 variables (anthropometric measurements, serum biomarkers, lifestyle factors, gastrointestinal symptoms, psychological factors, specific nutrients intake) is more important to predict an individual's microbiota composition cluster, with 91% accuracy, than the dietary intake alone. Our findings could serve to develop strategies to educate individuals about changes of some modifiable lifestyle factors, aiming to classify them into clusters with favorable health markers, independent of their dietary pattern.

Risk Assessment of Micronutrients Deficiency in Vegetarian or Vegan Children: Not So Obvious

Vegetarian diets have gained in popularity worldwide and therefore an increasing number of children may be exposed to the resulting nutritional consequences. Among them, the risk of micronutrient shortfall is particularly of concern. This narrative review aims to assess and discuss the relevance of micronutrient deficiency risk based on the available data. It mainly draws attention to iron, zinc, iodine, and vitamins B12 and D intake. Diets that are more restrictive in animal source foods, such as vegan diets, have a greater likelihood of nutritional deficiencies. However, the actual risk of micronutrient deficiency in vegetarian children is relatively difficult to assert based on the limitations of evidence due to the lack of well-designed studies. The risk of vitamin B12 deficiency must be considered in newborns from vegan or macrobiotic mothers and children with the most restrictive diet, as well as the risk of iron, zinc, and iodine deficiency, possibly by performing the appropriate tests. A lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet exposes a low risk if it uses a very varied diet with a sufficient intake of dairy products. Vegan and macrobiotic diets should be avoided during pregnancy and childhood. There is a need for education and nutrition guidance and the need for supplementation should be assessed individually.

A comparison of diet quality and cardiovascular and inflammatory responses between aerobically trained male adults following either a long-term vegan or omnivorous dietary pattern

Vegan dietary patterns are increasingly being adopted by endurance athletes, yet research examining the influence of this dietary pattern on exercise-related physiology is limited. This pilot study, therefore, aimed to explore nutrient status, diet quality and cardiovascular and inflammatory responses in aerobically trained adult males following vegan and omnivorous dietary patterns during aerobic exercise. An incremental ramp running test was used to assess peak oxygen consumption (VO_2peak ) in males aged 18-55 years, engaging in >4 h training/week. Exercise testing was performed during walking and steady-state running conditions (60% and 90% of VO_2peak ). Participants were grouped by dietary pattern type and were equivalent for age, training volume and VO_2peak . When compared to the omnivorous group (n = 8, age 35.6 years, VO_2peak 55.7 mL/kg/min), the vegan group (n = 12, age 33.4 years, VO_2peak 56.4 m/kg/min) consumed more energy from carbohydrates (p = 0.007), and less energy from protein (p = 0.001) while exhibiting a higher overall diet quality score (p = 0.008). No differences in inflammatory biomarkers were observed before or after running. Total red blood cell count, haemoglobin and haematocrit levels were lower in the vegan dietary group. In summary, aerobically trained males, following a long-term vegan diet, can tolerate a short bout of running broadly comparatively to their omnivore counterparts. More arduous endurance exercise conditions should be explored to further uncover potential outcomes of consuming a vegan dietary pattern and exercise-related physiology.

The Association between Vegan Dietary Patterns and Physical Activity-A Cross-Sectional Online Survey

A balanced diet and sufficient physical activity (PA) are known to have positive health effects. The relationship between a vegan diet and PA levels is understudied. This cross-sectional online survey aimed to analyze whether different vegan dietary patterns differ in PA. In total, 516 vegan participants were included (June to August 2022). Different dietary patterns were compiled through principal component analysis, while group differences were calculated using independent tests, or chi-squared tests as well as logistic regression analyses. The population had an average age of 28.0 (SD: 7.7) years and had been living vegan for 2.6 (95% CI: 2.5-3.0) years. Two dietary patterns, the "convenience" and the "health-conscious" group, were identified. People with a convenience dietary pattern had significantly higher odds of sitting more (OR 1.10, 95% CI 1.04-1.18) and not achieving aerobic PA (OR 1.81, 95% CI 1.18-2.79) or strength training recommendations (OR 1.81, 95% CI 1.26-2.61) than people with a health-conscious dietary pattern. This study suggests the heterogeneity of vegan diets and that dietary patterns must be differentiated, as they also differ in the level of PA. Additional studies involving complete dietary assessment with a focus on ultraprocessed foods, blood metabolite analysis, and objective PA assessment are required.

A Cross-Sectional Survey of the Nutritional Quality of Quinoa Food Products Available in the Italian Market

Quinoa's (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) status has been recently raised from staple food crop confined to its region of origin to a globally recognized commercial food crop, widely traded in the international market. Claims on food labels may attract consumers who can therefore purchase products with nutrition, allergy/intolerance, or social and ethical claims in an effort to make healthier and more sustainable food choices. The aim of this work was (i) to investigate the nutritional quality of quinoa food products available to the Italian consumer over the e-commerce market, as emerged from nutrition labelling, and (ii) to inquire about the occurrence of nutrition, allergy and intolerance, and social and ethical claims on the packaging. To this aim, a cross-sectional survey of quinoa food products available in the Italian market was conducted. It emerged that several quinoa product categories are available and grains and pasta are the major ones. Nutrition claims are generally displayed in combination with gluten-free and social/ethical claims. Based on the nutrition facts, a higher proportion of products are eligible for nutrition claims. The comparison between the gluten-free labelled and gluten-containing quinoa products showed limited differences in the nutritional quality.

Nutritional Assessment of the Symptomatic Patient on a Plant-Based Diet: Seven Key Questions

Plant-based diets, both vegan and vegetarian, which emphasize grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, and seeds are increasingly popular for health as well as financial, ethical, and religious reasons. The medical literature clearly demonstrates that whole food plant-based diets can be both nutritionally sufficient and medically beneficial. However, any person on an intentionally restrictive, but poorly-designed diet may predispose themselves to clinically-relevant nutritional deficiencies. For persons on a poorly-designed plant-based diet, deficiencies are possible in both macronutrients (protein, essential fatty acids) and micronutrients (vitamin B12, iron, calcium, zinc, and vitamin D). Practitioner evaluation of symptomatic patients on a plant-based diet requires special consideration of seven key nutrient concerns for plant-based diets. This article translates these concerns into seven practical questions that all practitioners can introduce into their patient assessments and clinical reasoning. Ideally, persons on plant-based diets should be able to answer these seven questions. Each serves as a heuristic prompt for both clinician and patient attentiveness to a complete diet. As such, these seven questions support increased patient nutrition knowledge and practitioner capacity to counsel, refer, and appropriately focus clinical resources.

Characterizing Meat- and Milk/Dairy-like Vegetarian Foods and Their Counterparts Based on Nutrient Profiling and Food Labels

Vegetarian foods are plant-based (PB) foods, often perceived as healthier foods than animal-based (AB) foods. The objective of this study was to analyze the nutritional quality of a set of PB foods (meat, milk and dairy products) marketed in Spain, and to compare their nutrient profiles with respect to some AB counterparts. Nutritional information per 100 g or mL, ingredients, and nutritional declarations, as well as the Nutri-Score, NOVA, and Eco-Score of each food were collected from Open Food Facts. Differences in the nutrient compositions between PB foods and their counterparts, and between the different groups of PB foods, were assessed at a 5% significance level. A total of 544 PB foods and 373 AB foods were identified. Overall, PB foods had a higher median content of fiber and carbohydrates, but a lower amount of proteins (except PB "meat" analogues: 14 g) and saturated fats (except PB "cheese alternatives": 12.5 g), than the AB counterparts (p < 0.05). PB "milk alternatives", particularly oat "milk", showed a higher median content of total carbohydrates (8 g) and sugars (5.5 g) compared to cow milks (4.7 g carbohydrates/sugars, on average; p < 0.001). PB "meat alternatives" also had a significantly higher value of carbohydrates (9 g) than AB meats (2 g, on average; p < 0.001). PB foods were mostly classified as Nutri-Score A and B (86%). However, more than half of them were of NOVA groups 3 and 4. Thus, there is a great diversity of PB meat and milk/dairy product alternatives on the Spanish market. Despite being products of good nutritional quality compared to AB foods, they also carry drawbacks that could have an impact on nutritional health.

A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Products Marketed as Plant-Based Across the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada Using Online Nutrition Information

Background

The food industry is responding to a rising demand for plant-based foods by developing and marketing an ever-wider range of vegan and vegetarian products under the banner of "plant-based." Understanding the nutritional properties of these products is critical.

Objectives

To assess the number, meal type, and nutritional content of products marketed as plant-based (MaPB) from the perspective of the consumer across multiple sectors in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada.

Methods

An online search for products MaPB was performed across supermarkets, restaurants, food manufacturers, and plant-based meal delivery companies in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada using the terms: "vegan," "vegetarian," and "plant-based." Online nutrition data were extracted, and whole meals that comprised >50% of ingredients such as fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and seeds were identified. The nutritional content of dishes MaPB in restaurants was also directly compared with meat-containing dishes.

Results

Further, 3488 unique products were identified, of which 962 were whole meals and 1137 were a replacement for the main protein component in a meal, including 771 meat alternatives. Across all sectors, 45% of whole meals had >15-g protein, 70% had <10% kcal from saturated fat; 29% had >10-g fiber per meal, and 86% had <1000 mg sodium. At restaurants, 1507 meat-containing dishes were identified and compared with 191 vegetarian and 81 vegan dishes. The meat-containing dishes were higher in protein [35.4 g (24.0-51.4)] compared with vegetarian [19.0 g (13.0-26.1)] and vegan [16.2 g (10.5-23.2) dishes (P < 0.001)]. The vegan dishes were low in saturated fat and sodium (SFA: 6.3 g ± 6.4, Sodium: 800 mg (545.0-1410.0) compared with both meat [SFA: 11.6 g ± 10.0; Sodium: 1280 mg (820.0-1952.0)] and vegetarian [SFA: 9.4 g ± 7.6; Sodium: 1011 mg (603.0-1560.0)] options (P < 0.001 for all comparisons).

Conclusions

Products MaPB tend to have lower concentrations of saturated fat and sodium than their meat-containing counterparts, but improvements are needed to optimize their nutritional composition.

The Effect of a Vegan Diet on the Coverage of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for Iodine among People from Poland

The aim of this research was to estimate the effect of a vegan diet on the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) coverage for iodine in people from Poland. It was hypothesized that the problem of iodine deficiency is a concern, especially among vegans. The survey study was conducted in the years 2021-2022 on 2200 people aged 18-80 with omnivore and vegan diets. The exclusion criteria in the study were pregnancy and lactation. The study found that the coverage of RDA for iodine among people with a vegan diet was lower than among people with an omnivore diet (p < 0.05); 90% of the participants with a vegan diet had an iodine intake below 150 µg/day. Plant-based dairy and meat analogs were consumed by vegans frequently and in large portions, but none were fortified with iodine. It was found that iodized salt was each group's primary source of iodine. However, it was observed that the iodine supply from this source was limited among vegans, especially in female subjects, who consumed less salt and smaller portions of meals. That is why consideration should be given to the iodine fortification of plant-based foods commonly consumed by vegans.

Vegan and Omnivorous High Protein Diets Support Comparable Daily Myofibrillar Protein Synthesis Rates and Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy in Young Adults

BACKGROUND

It remains unclear whether non-animal-derived dietary protein sources (and therefore vegan diets) can support resistance training-induced skeletal muscle remodeling to the same extent as animal-derived protein sources.

METHODS

In Phase 1, 16 healthy young adults (m = 8, f = 8; age: 23 ± 1 y; BMI: 23 ± 1 kg/m²) completed a 3-d dietary intervention (high protein, 1.8 g·kg bm^-1·d^-1) where protein was derived from omnivorous (OMNI1; n = 8) or exclusively non-animal (VEG1; n = 8) sources, alongside daily unilateral leg resistance exercise. Resting and exercised daily myofibrillar protein synthesis (MyoPS) rates were assessed using deuterium oxide. In Phase 2, 22 healthy young adults (m = 11, f = 11; age: 24 ± 1 y; BMI: 23 ± 0 kg/m²) completed a 10 wk, high-volume (5 d/wk), progressive resistance exercise program while consuming an omnivorous (OMNI2; n = 12) or non-animal-derived (VEG2; n = 10) high-protein diet (∼2 g·kg bm^-1·d^-1). Muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA), whole-body lean mass (via DXA), thigh muscle volume (via MRI), muscle strength, and muscle function were determined pre, after 2 and 5 wk, and postintervention.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether a high-protein, mycoprotein-rich, non-animal-derived diet can support resistance training-induced skeletal muscle remodeling to the same extent as an isonitrogenous omnivorous diet.

RESULTS

Daily MyoPS rates were ∼12% higher in the exercised than in the rested leg (2.46 ± 0.27%·d^-1 compared with 2.20 ± 0.33%·d^-1 and 2.62 ± 0.56%·d^-1 compared with 2.36 ± 0.53%·d^-1 in OMNI1 and VEG1, respectively; P < 0.001) and not different between groups (P > 0.05). Resistance training increased lean mass in both groups by a similar magnitude (OMNI2 2.6 ± 1.1 kg, VEG2 3.1 ± 2.5 kg; P > 0.05). Likewise, training comparably increased thigh muscle volume (OMNI2 8.3 ± 3.6%, VEG2 8.3 ± 4.1%; P > 0.05), and muscle fiber CSA (OMNI2 33 ± 24%, VEG2 32 ± 48%; P > 0.05). Both groups increased strength (1 repetition maximum) of multiple muscle groups, to comparable degrees.

CONCLUSIONS

Omnivorous and vegan diets can support comparable rested and exercised daily MyoPS rates in healthy young adults consuming a high-protein diet. This translates to similar skeletal muscle adaptive responses during prolonged high-volume resistance training, irrespective of dietary protein provenance. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03572127.

Modeling lacto-vegetarian, pescatarian, and "pescavegan" USDA food patterns and assessing nutrient adequacy for healthy non-pregnant, non-lactating adults

Introduction

The 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) includes a Healthy Vegetarian Dietary Pattern (HVDP) with dairy foods and eggs as one of its three recommended dietary patterns for non-pregnant, non-lactating healthy adults. This study evaluates whether pescatarian, lacto-vegetarian, and "pescavegan" adaptations of the HVDP can be nutritionally adequate if modeled with foods recommended by the DGA.

Methods

The nutrient composition of these three alternative models of the HVDP were assessed at 1, 800-, 2, 000-, 2, 200-, and 2,400- kcal/day using similar food pattern modeling procedures as the 2020 DGA. For the pescatarian and pescavegan models, 0.5 ounce-equivalent of refined grains per day was replaced with seafood. For the lacto-vegetarian and pescavegan models, eggs were replaced with equal proportions of the other vegetarian protein foods. In the pescavegan model, dairy foods were replaced by a dairy alternative group comprised of fortified soy milk and soy yogurt.

Results

All models at all energy levels were within Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs) for all macronutrients, contained ≤5% of total kcal from saturated fat, and met recommendations for most micronutrients. Nutrients provided below the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) in these models included iron, sodium, vitamin D, vitamin E, and choline. Micronutrients provided at less than 50% of their respective DRIs included vitamin D and choline.

Discussion

Adapting the HVDP for lactovegetarian, pescatarian, and pescavegan dietary patterns provided adequate amounts of macronutrients and most micronutrients.

Modern Diets and the Health of Our Planet: An Investigation into the Environmental Impacts of Food Choices

Popular modern diets are often seen as a panacea for improving health and promoting weight reduction. While there is a large body of literature reporting the health benefits of popular diets, few studies have described their planetary benefits. Our investigation aims to evaluate the simultaneous impacts of six popular diets within the United States on both human and planetary health. Using carbon footprint databases and representative meal plans, the environmental and health-related impacts of the Standard American, Mediterranean, vegan, paleo, keto, and climatarian diets are compared using the currently available literature. Results indicate that diets that exhibit lower carbon footprints also have positive effects on human health. The diets found to have the lowest environmental impacts were the vegan, climatarian, and Mediterranean diets. These low-carbon-footprint diets can likely be attributed to a reduced reliance on ruminant meat (cattle and sheep) and processed food consumption, while diets with high carbon footprints are more dependent on ruminant meat and saturated fat. Moderate consumption of meats such as chicken, pork, and fish in conjunction with an emphasis on locally grown fruits and vegetables can be maintained without adversely affecting the planetary carbon footprint and with the added benefit of promoting good health. Thus, making simple substitutions within each individual's diet can be advertised as an effective approach to collectively lower the environmental impact in tandem with improving health and longevity.