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Singh S, Pitchers R, Hassard F. Coliphages as viral indicators of sanitary significance for drinking water. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:941532. [PMID: 35958148 PMCID: PMC9362991 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.941532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Coliphages are virus that infect coliform bacteria and are used in aquatic systems for risk assessment for human enteric viruses. This mini-review appraises the types and sources of coliphage and their fate and behavior in source waters and engineered drinking water treatment systems. Somatic (cell wall infection) and F+ (male specific) coliphages are abundant in drinking water sources and are used as indicators of fecal contamination. Coliphage abundances do not consistently correlate to human enteric virus abundance, but they suitably reflect the risks of exposure to human enteric viruses. Coliphages have highly variable surface characteristics with respect to morphology, size, charge, isoelectric point, and hydrophobicity which together interact to govern partitioning and removal characteristics during water treatment. The groups somatic and F+ coliphages are valuable for investigating the virus elimination during water treatment steps and as indicators for viral water quality assessment. Strain level analyses (e.g., Qβ or GA-like) provide more information about specific sources of viral pollution but are impractical for routine monitoring. Consistent links between rapid online monitoring tools (e.g., turbidity, particle counters, and flow cytometry) and phages in drinking water have yet to be established but are recommended as a future area of research activity. This could enable the real-time monitoring of virus and improve the process understanding during transient operational events. Exciting future prospects for the use of coliphages in aquatic microbiology are also discussed based on current scientific evidence and practical needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suniti Singh
- Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Bedford, United Kingdom
| | | | - Francis Hassard
- Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Bedford, United Kingdom
- Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability, University of South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Tondera K, Ruppelt JP, Pinnekamp J, Kistemann T, Schreiber C. Reduction of micropollutants and bacteria in a constructed wetland for combined sewer overflow treatment after 7 and 10 years of operation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 651:917-927. [PMID: 30257231 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Repeated investigations on constructed wetlands for the treatment of combined sewer overflows, also named bioretention filters or retention soil filters, are necessary to provide information on their long-term performance. In this study, a sampling campaign was conducted on micropollutants, indicator microorganisms and standard parameters ten years after such filters were in operation and three years after the first investigation; it revealed that the filters lost capacity to remove chemical substances with no or only slow biological degradability. This was the case e.g. for phosphate (decrease from 29 to 11%), diclofenac (67 to 34%) and TCPP (34% to negative reduction). They continued to remove easily degradable parameters such as COD (stable around 75%) stably. The indicator microorganisms Escherichia coli (1.1/0.8 log10), intestinal enterococci (1.3/0.8 log10) and somatic coliphages (0.6/1.0 log10) showed comparably low process variations given the difficulties in sampling and analysing microbial parameters representatively as well as given natural variations in microbial behaviour and growth. Additionally, for bisphenol A, we found a temperature-related difference of removal efficiencies: while in the cold months (winter), the removal was only 53% on average, it increased to 90% in the warm months (summer). As for the long-term prospective of retention soil filters, decision-makers need to identify the most important pollutants in a specific catchment area and adapt the filter design accordingly. If pollutants are targeted that lead to an exhausted filtration capacity, post treatment or the exchange of charged filter material is necessary. However, for easily biologically degradable substances, so far, there is no limit in their use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Tondera
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany; IMT Atlantique, GEPEA, UBL, F-44307 Nantes, France.
| | - Jan P Ruppelt
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.
| | - Johannes Pinnekamp
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.
| | - Thomas Kistemann
- GeoHealth Centre, Institute for Hygiene & Public Health, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
| | - Christiane Schreiber
- GeoHealth Centre, Institute for Hygiene & Public Health, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
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Impact of Combined Sewer Overflow on Wastewater Treatment and Microbiological Quality of Rivers for Recreation. WATER 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/w9110906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Within the framework of a one-year study the treatment capacity of a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) was evaluated, with regard to fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) and to their influence on the recipient. The logarithmic reduction rates for fecal coliforms (FC), Escherichia coli (EC) and intestinal enterococci (IE) were 2.84, 2.90 and 2.93. In the investigated period of time, the tested treatment plant released 4.3% of the total annual load flow volume as combined sewer overflow (CSO), that is, when the influent into the combined sewer exceeds the capacity of the treatment plant and coarsely cleaned wastewater arrives at the recipient. This CSO discharge increased the number of FIB significantly by 1.2 × 102 MPN/100 mL for EC, and by 1.8 × 101 MPN/100 mL for IE. For the Styrian part of the Mur River (1.6 million inhabitants), a calculation of FIB of all sewage treatment plants estimating the same ratio of CSO (4.3%) and a given mean flow rate (QM) results in a significant increase of the FIB load in the recipient: 3.8 × 103 MPN/100 mL for EC and 5.8 × 102 MPN/100 mL for IE. On the basis of these values the standards of water quality for recreational purposes cannot be met.
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Wang Y, Chen Y, Zheng X, Gui C, Wei Y. Spatio-temporal distribution of fecal indicators in three rivers of the Haihe River Basin, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:9036-9047. [PMID: 26695413 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-5907-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Because of their significant impact on public health, waterborne pathogens, especially bacteria and viruses, are frequently monitored in surface water to assess microbial quality of water bodies. However, more than one billion people worldwide currently lack access to safe drinking water, and a diversity of waterborne outbreaks caused by pathogens is reported in nations at all levels of economic development. Spatio-temporal distribution of conventional pollutants and five pathogenic microorganisms were discussed for the Haihe River Basin. Land use and socio-economic assessments were coupled with comprehensive water quality monitoring. Physical, chemical, and biological parameters were measured at 20 different sites in the watershed for 1 year, including pH, temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, chemical oxygen demand, ammonia-N, total and fecal coliforms, E. coli, and Enterococcus. The results highlighted the high spatio-temporal variability in pathogen distribution at watershed scale: high concentration of somatic coliphages and fecal indicator bacteria in March and December and their very low concentration in June and September. All pathogens were positively correlated to urban/rural residential/industrial land and negatively correlated to other four land use types. Microbial pollution was greatly correlated with population density, urbanization rate, and percentage of the tertiary industry in the gross domestic product. In the future, river microbial risk control strategy should focus more on the effective management of secondary effluent of wastewater treatment plant and land around rivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yawei Wang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Yanan Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
- School of Environment and Natural Resources, Renmin University of China, Beijing, 100872, China
| | - Xiang Zheng
- School of Environment and Natural Resources, Renmin University of China, Beijing, 100872, China.
| | - Chengmin Gui
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Yuansong Wei
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China.
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Traoré AN, Mulaudzi K, Chari GJE, Foord SH, Mudau LS, Barnard TG, Potgieter N. The Impact of Human Activities on Microbial Quality of Rivers in the Vhembe District, South Africa. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2016; 13:ijerph13080817. [PMID: 27529265 PMCID: PMC4997503 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph13080817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background: Water quality testing is dictated by microbial agents found at the time of sampling in reference to their acceptable risk levels. Human activities might contaminate valuable water resources and add to the microbial load present in water bodies. Therefore, the effects of human activities on the microbial quality of rivers collected from twelve catchments in the Vhembe District in South Africa were investigated, with samples analyzed for total coliform (TC) and Eschericha coli (E. coli) contents. Methods: Physical parameters and various human activities were recorded for each sampling site. The Quanti-Tray® method was adopted for the assessment of TC and E. coli contents in the rivers over a two-year period. A multiplex polymerase chain (PCR) method was used to characterize the strains of E. coli found. Results: The microbial quality of the rivers was poor with both TC and E. coli contents found to be over acceptable limits set by the South African Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). No significant difference (p > 0.05) was detected between TC and E. coli risks in dry and wet seasons. All six pathogenic E. coli strains were identified and Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC), atypical Enteropathogenic E. coli (a-EPEC) and Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) were the most prevalent E. coli strains detected (respectively, 87%, 86% and 83%). Conclusions: The study indicated that contamination in the majority of sampling sites, due to human activities such as car wash, animal grazing and farming, poses health risks to communities using the rivers for various domestic chores. It is therefore recommended that more education by the respective departments is done to avert pollution of rivers and prevent health risks to the communities in the Vhembe District.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afsatou N Traoré
- Microbiology Department, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa.
| | - Khodani Mulaudzi
- Microbiology Department, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa.
| | - Gamuchirai J E Chari
- Microbiology Department, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa.
| | - Stefan H Foord
- Zoology Department, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa.
| | - Lutendo S Mudau
- Department of Environmental Health, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.
| | - Tobias G Barnard
- Water & Health Research Unit, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 524, Auckland Park, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa.
| | - Natasha Potgieter
- Microbiology Department, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa.
- Dean, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa.
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Kistemann T, Schmidt A, Flemming HC. Post-industrial river water quality-Fit for bathing again? Int J Hyg Environ Health 2016; 219:629-642. [PMID: 27498630 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2016] [Revised: 07/09/2016] [Accepted: 07/09/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
For the Ruhr River, bathing has been prohibited for decades. However, along with significant improvements of the hygienic water quality, there is an increasing demand of using the river for recreational purposes, in particular for bathing. In the "Safe Ruhr" interdisciplinary research project, demands, options and chances for lifting the bathing ban for the Ruhr River were investigated. As being the prominent reason for persisting recreational restrictions, microbiological water quality was in the focus of interest. Not only the faecal indicator organisms (FIOs) as required by the European Bathing Water Directive were considered, but also pathogens such as Salmonella, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Legionella pneumophila, Campylobacter, Leptospira, enteroviruses and protozoan parasites. In this introductory paper, we firstly relate current recreational desires to historical experiences of river bathing. After recapitulating relevant microbial river contamination sources (predominantly sewage treatment plants, combined sewer overflows, and surface runoffs), we review existing knowledge about the relationships of FIOs and pathogens in rivers designated for recreational purposes, and then trace the evolution, rationale and validity of recreational freshwater quality criteria which are, despite obvious uncertainties, mostly relying on the FIO paradigm. In particular, the representativeness of FIOs is critically discussed. The working programme of Safe Ruhr, aiming at initiating and facilitating a process towards legalisation of Ruhr River bathing, is outlined. Sources of contamination can be technically handled which leaves the actual measures to political decisions. As contaminations are transient, only occasionally exceeding legal limits, a flexible bathing site management, warning bathers of non-safe situations, may amend technical interventions and offer innovative solutions. As a result, a situation-adapted system for lifting of the bathing ban for Ruhr River appears realistic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kistemann
- IHPH-Institute for Hygiene and Public Health, GeoHealth Centre, University of Bonn, D-53105 Bonn, Germany.
| | - Alexandra Schmidt
- IHPH-Institute for Hygiene and Public Health, GeoHealth Centre, University of Bonn, D-53105 Bonn, Germany
| | - Hans-Curt Flemming
- University of Duisburg-Essen, Faculty of Chemistry, Biofilm Centre, Universitätsstr. 5, D-45141 Essen, Germany; IWW Water Centre, Moritzstrasse 26, D-45476 Mülheim, Germany
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Tondera K, Klaer K, Roder S, Brueckner I, Strathmann M, Kistemann T, Schreiber C, Pinnekamp J. Developing an easy-to-apply model for identifying relevant pathogen pathways into surface waters used for recreational purposes. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2015; 219:662-670. [PMID: 26706190 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2015.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2015] [Revised: 11/14/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Swimming in inner-city surface waters is popular in the warm season, but can have negative consequences such as gastro-intestinal, ear and skin infections. The pathogens causing these infections commonly enter surface waters via several point source discharges such as the effluents from wastewater treatment plants and sewer overflows, as well as through diffuse non-point sources such as surface runoff. Nonetheless, the recreational use of surface waters is attractive for residents. In order to save financial and organizational resources, local authorities need to estimate the most relevant pathways of pathogens into surface waters. In particular, when detailed data on a local scale are missing, this is quite difficult to achieve. For this reason, we have developed an easy-to-apply model using the example of Escherichia coli and intestinal enterococci as a first approach to the local situation, where missing data can be replaced by data from literature. The model was developed based on a case study of a river arm monitored in western Germany and will be generalized for future applications. Although the limits of the EU Bathing Water Directive are already fulfilled during dry weather days, we showed that the effluent of wastewater treatment plants and overland flow had the most relevant impact on the microbial surface water quality. On rainy weather days, combined sewer overflows are responsible for the highest microbial pollution loads. The results obtained in this study can help decision makers to focus on reducing the relevant pathogen sources within a catchment area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Tondera
- Institute of Environmental Engineering of RWTH Aachen University (ISA), Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str. 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Kassandra Klaer
- Institute of Environmental Engineering of RWTH Aachen University (ISA), Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str. 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Silke Roder
- Institute of Environmental Engineering of RWTH Aachen University (ISA), Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str. 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Ira Brueckner
- Institute of Environmental Engineering of RWTH Aachen University (ISA), Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str. 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Martin Strathmann
- IWW Rheinisch-Westfaelisches Institut fuer Wasser, Moritzstr. 26, 45476 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
| | - Thomas Kistemann
- Institute for Hygiene and Public Health (IHPH), University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53105 Bonn, Germany
| | - Christiane Schreiber
- Institute for Hygiene and Public Health (IHPH), University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53105 Bonn, Germany
| | - Johannes Pinnekamp
- Institute of Environmental Engineering of RWTH Aachen University (ISA), Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str. 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
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Schreiber C, Rechenburg A, Rind E, Kistemann T. The impact of land use on microbial surface water pollution. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2014; 218:181-7. [PMID: 25456147 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2014.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2012] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Our knowledge relating to water contamination from point and diffuse sources has increased in recent years and there have been many studies undertaken focusing on effluent from sewage plants or combined sewer overflows. However, there is still only a limited amount of microbial data on non-point sources leading to diffuse pollution of surface waters. In this study, the concentrations of several indicator micro-organisms and pathogens in the upper reaches of a river system were examined over a period of 16 months. In addition to bacteria, diffuse pollution caused by Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium spp. was analysed. A single land use type predestined to cause high concentrations of all microbial parameters could not be identified. The influence of different land use types varies between microbial species. The microbial concentration in river water cannot be explained by stable non-point effluent concentrations from different land use types. There is variation in the ranking of the potential of different land use types resulting in surface water contamination with regard to minimum, median and maximum effects. These differences between median and maximum impact indicate that small-scale events like spreading manure substantially influence the general contamination potential of a land use type and may cause increasing micro-organism concentrations in the river water by mobilisation during the next rainfall event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Schreiber
- Institute for Hygiene & Public Health, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, D-53105 Bonn, Germany.
| | - Andrea Rechenburg
- Institute for Hygiene & Public Health, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, D-53105 Bonn, Germany.
| | - Esther Rind
- Institute of Geography, School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Drummond Street, EH8 9XP Edinburgh, Scotland, UK.
| | - Thomas Kistemann
- Institute for Hygiene & Public Health, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, D-53105 Bonn, Germany.
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[Detection of viruses in raw water as a basic tool for risk assessment]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2011; 54:496-504. [PMID: 21465407 DOI: 10.1007/s00103-011-1249-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Human pathogenic viruses may end up in surface waters by fecal contamination. However, the German drinking water ordinance requests that pathogens in drinking water should not be present in concentrations constituting a potential danger to human health. Since many viruses do have a very low dose of infection, they have to be sufficiently eliminated in the process of drinking water purification. Waterborne virus outbreaks in Europe, over the last few decades, were mostly linked to noncompliance with the generally accepted codes of practice for drinking water production. The aimed level of protection of drinking water supplies in Germany, however, exceeds prevention of outbreaks by even protecting against sporadic virus infections. Documentation of such a high level of protection is not achieved by end product control alone but requires a process analysis with risk assessment. To do such an analysis, information regarding the presence of viruses in the raw water used for drinking water production, as well as data of virus elimination rates during purification processes, are of major importance. This paper presents suggestions for implementation of such a risk assessment, focusing on the evaluation of raw water quality.
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Abstract
AIMS This study aims to investigate the ecology of coliphages, an important microbial pollution indicator. Specifically, our experiments address (i) the ability of environmental Escherichia coli (E. coli) to serve as hosts for coliphage replication, and (ii) the temporal and spatial distribution of coliphages in coastal waters. METHODS AND RESULTS Water samples from three locations in California's Newport Bay watershed were tested for the presence of coliphages every 2 weeks for an entire year. A total of nine E. coli strains isolated from various sources served as hosts for coliphage detection. Coliphage occurrence was significantly different between freshwater, estuarine and coastal locations and correlated with water temperature, salinity and rainfall in the watershed. The coliphages isolated on the environmental hosts had a broad host-range relative to the coliphages isolated on an E. coli strain from sewage and a US EPA recommended strain for coliphage detection. CONCLUSIONS Coliphage occurrence was related to the temperature, rainfall and salinity within the bay. The adaptation to a broad host-range may enable the proliferation of coliphages in the aquatic environment. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Understanding the seasonal variation of phages is useful for establishing a background level of coliphage presence in coastal waters. The broad host-range of coliphages isolated on the environmental E. coli host calls for investigation of coliphage replication in the aquatic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- V C Reyes
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - S C Jiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
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