Assessment of microbial risks by characterization of Escherichia coli presence to analyze the public health risks from poor water quality in Nepal

Combining statistical analyses and GIS-based approach for modeling the sanitary boundary of drinking water wells in Yaoundé, Cameroon

In slums and urban areas with unplanned housing such as in the city of Yaounde, Cameroon, poor water quality and inadequate sanitation pose significant health risks. The absence of locally-defined sanitary boundaries, tailored to hydrogeological conditions, hinders effective zoning and land use planning, exacerbating environmental degradation and health hazards. In this study, the sanitary boundary between drinking water wells and sources of pollution in the city of Yaoundé was defined using statistical analysis techniques and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The Groundwater Quality Index (GWQI) and certain significant parameters affecting water quality notably the transmissivity of the aquifer and well depth were used to establish the sanitary boundary equation which was then interpolated in a GIS environment to obtain the sanitary boundary map of the study area. The linear equation deduced from the significant factors was defined to map the health boundaries between wells and pollution sources for a nominal value of the GWQI (GWQI = 25). Of the 112 wells analysed, 37 % had an excellent GWQI, 16 % were good while the remaining 47 % were poor. Statistical analysis showed a strong correlation between the GWQI and significant factors of groundwater pollution, such as the distance between well and pit latrines (r = -0.753), the aquifer transmissivity of the formation (r = 0.671) and the depth of the wells (r = - 0.855) but no correlation with elevation (r = 0.017) and well age (r = 0.090). Linear regression analysis confirmed the association of the GWQI with the main factors of pollution (p ≤ 0.05). A coefficient of determination of R2 = 0.85 was obtained when validating the linear regression plot based on independent data between measured and predicted GWQI. The sanitary boundary map shows that the wells in our study area should be located between 39 m and 370 m, with an average value of 215 m. New regulations on the distance between well and pit latrines are essential to prevent groundwater pollution.

An assessment of latrine front-end characteristics and associated surface E. coli indicated faecal contamination in rural Fiji

In Fiji, 90% of the population has access to basic sanitation; however, there are still persistent health risks from endemic faecal-oral diseases such as typhoid fever. There is a need to assess the contribution of existing sanitation facilities in the faecal pathogen transmission pathway. This study was conducted as part of a larger planetary health study across 29 rural communities within five river catchments. This specific research aimed to characterise latrine front-ends, both infrastructure and usage behaviour, and to assess the faecal contamination levels on various frequently contacted latrine surfaces in rural Fiji. A sanitation survey, along with observation and latrine swab sampling, was conducted in households over three phases: baseline (n = 311) (Aug-Dec 2019), endline (n = 262) (Jun-Sep 2022) and an in-depth front-end study (n = 12) (Oct-Nov 2022). Of 311 households, almost all had pedestal-type latrines, predominately cistern-flush (83%), followed by pour-flush (13%), and then hole-type (pit) latrines (4%). Washable latrine floors had significantly higher E. coli densities (6.7 × 102 CFU/25 cm2) compared to non-washable floors (1.3 × 102 CFU/25 cm2) (p = 0.05), despite washable floors indicating improved latrines. The in-depth front-end analysis found that moist latrine surfaces had significantly elevated E. coli densities (1.2 × 103 CFU/25 cm2) compared to the dry ones (14.3 CFU/25 cm2) (p < 0.001), highlighting the importance of maintaining dry latrine surfaces. Latrine floors and mid-walls were the most frequently contaminated surfaces, emphasising the need to clean and disinfect these surfaces. Only 46% of the households reported always using soap for handwashing after defecation, exacerbating the risk of transmitting faecal pathogens. This study highlights that latrine cleanliness and hygiene are as crucial as latrine infrastructures for the effective disruption of faecal pathogens transmission during latrine use.

Multiple pathogen contamination of water, hands, and fomites in rural Nepal and the effect of WaSH interventions

Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WaSH) interventions are the most effective in reducing diarrheal disease severity and prevalence. However, very few studies have investigated the effectiveness of WaSH intervention in reducing pathogen presence and concentration. In this study, we employed a microfluidic PCR approach to quantify twenty bacterial pathogens in water (n = 360), hands (n = 180), and fomite (n = 540) samples collected in rural households of Nepal to assess the pathogen exposures and the effect of WaSH intervention on contamination and exposure rates. The pathogen load and the exposure pathways for each pathogen in intervention and control villages were compared to understand the effects of WaSH intervention. Pathogens were detected in higher frequency and concentration from fomites samples, toilet handle (21.42%; 5.4,0 95%CI: mean log10 of 4.69, 5.96), utensils (23.5%; 5.47, 95%CI: mean log10 of 4.77, 6.77), and water vessels (22.42%; 5.53, 95%CI: mean log10 of 4.79, 6.60) as compared to cleaning water (14.36%; 5.05, 95%CI: mean log10 of 4.36, 5.89), drinking water (14.26%; 4.37, 85%CI: mean log10 of 4.37, 5.87), and hand rinse samples (16.92%; 5.49, 95%CI: mean log10 of 4.77, 6.39). There was no clear evidence that WaSH intervention reduced overall pathogen contamination in any tested pathway. However, we observed a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the prevalence, but not concentration, of some target pathogens, including Enterococcus spp. in the intervention village compared to the control village for water and hands rinse samples. Conversely, no significant reduction in target pathogen concentration was observed for water and hand rinse samples. In swab samples, there was a reduction mostly in pathogen concentration rather than pathogen prevalence, highlighting that a reduction in pathogen prevalence was not always accompanied by a reduction in pathogen concentration. This study provides an understanding of WaSH intervention on microbe concentrations. Such data could help with better planning of intervention activities in the future.

Contaminated Water and an Indication of Risk: Examining Microbial Contamination in the Water Used by Consumers and Commercial Growers in Fresh Produce Systems in Nepal

There has been limited research and understanding of the water quality in developing countries. Fresh produce consumed raw is nutrient-dense but is more susceptible to causing foodborne illness when contaminated water is used in production and consumption. There have been increasing reported incidences of foodborne outbreaks in Nepal linked to fresh produce contamination. However, water used in washing fresh produce by consumers and water used by growers or vendors is rarely tested. This research examines the source water used by consumers and growers in fresh produce systems in Nepal. To examine Escherichia coli (E. coli) detection as an indicator of contamination risk in water, we selected five major metropolitan cities for consumer households and ten districts representing commercial growers of vegetable growing areas of all seven provinces of Nepal. Altogether, we collected 394 water samples from randomly selected individual households: 156 from consumer households and 238 from growers or vendors. Results suggest that 59% of the water used in fresh produce systems is contaminated with E. coli in Nepal. On the water source used by consumers to wash fresh produce before consumption, we found that the dominant sources are the stored water in tanks or containers (46%) and municipal or communal supply water (39%)-which have E. coli prevalence rate of 66% and 57%, respectively. On the dominant sources of water used in fresh produce by growers or vendors, we found up to 88% of E. coli prevalence in the water they use. We also discussed the location or regional differences in contamination risks. This nationally represented study has implications for intervention policies and programs for safer food production and consumption practices in countries like Nepal where food safety is an emerging priority.

Water quality monitoring in southern Brazil and the assessment of risk factors related to contamination by coliforms and Escherichia coli

The potability of water, including underground sources, is constantly affected by human activities. To assess water quality and water security in rural and urban areas of southern Brazil, a quantitative, retrospective analysis of water samples collected monthly by the Brazilian health authorities (19,687 samples from 2013 to 2021) was performed. In rural areas, 5,979 water samples (77.54%) were found to be contaminated by coliform bacteria and 3,431 (44.50%) by Escherichia coli. In addition, 1,616 (20.95%) of the contaminated samples were significantly correlated with rainfall amount. In urban areas, 1,268 (10.95%) of the samples contained coliform bacteria and 293 (2.53%) of these samples contained E. coli, with the factor of rainfall associated with 1,081 samples (9.33%) with bacterial contamination. In terms of physicochemical parameters, turbidity exceeded the national standard (5 uT) in 448 (2.32%) samples and fluoride fell below the required level (0.8 mg/L) in 106 samples (0.54%). The presence of free residual chlorine (0.2-2.0 mg/L) was verified in 846 samples (14.38%) in rural areas and in 10,825 samples (56.13%) in urban areas. These results suggest a strong association between rainfall factors and physicochemical alterations, as well as the risk of greater microbial contamination of water for human consumption.

Microbial assessment of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) in temporary and permanent settlements two years after Nepal 2015 earthquake

Disaster-induced displacement often causes people to live in temporary settlements that have limited infrastructure and access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH). Reducing the risk of diarrheal diseases in such situations requires knowing how housing influences the presence of pathogens in water and the interaction between human settlements and exposure to pathogens. A cross-sectional study was conducted in May 2017 in two communities hard-hit by the Nepal 2015 earthquake: one recovered with newly reconstructed houses, and one recovered with residents still living in sheet metal temporary shelters constructed after the earthquake. We collected 60 water (30 drinking water and 30 cleaning water), 30 hand rinse, and 90 environmental swab samples (30 toilet handles, 30 utensils, and 30 water vessels) from selected households in each location and quantified 22 bacterial pathogens using microfluidic quantitative polymerase chain reaction (mfqPCR). A total of 59 samples were randomly selected for amplicon-based sequencing of the 16S rRNA, and it identified bacterial community profiles between these two settlements and their association with target genes of pathogenic bacteria. Target genes like uidA of Escherichia coli and the mip gene of Legionella pnuemophila showed significantly high frequency in specific sample types in temporary settlements than in permanent settlements. A significantly high concentration was observed in temporary settlements for Enterococcus spp. and S. typhimurium, specifically in swab samples. There was a sharp distinction of microbial community profiles between water and hand rinse samples with environmental swab samples, with a large abundance of potentially pathogenic bacteria in swab samples in both settlements. This observation highlighted that fomite could be an important transmission route for pathogens in rural settings and designing key interventions to target different stages of transmission pathways is essential. Overall findings from this study suggest that the recovered settlement with higher quality housing may be less impacted by fecal contamination than recovering settlements and that interventions should be designed to disrupt multiple transmission pathways to reduce pathogen exposure.

Pheromone effect of estradiol regulates the conjugative transfer of pCF10 carrying antibiotic resistance genes

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) mediated by conjugative plasmids greatly contributes to bacteria evolution and the transmission of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). In addition to the selective pressure imposed by extensive antibiotic use, environmental chemical pollutants facilitate the dissemination of antibiotic resistance, consequently posing a serious threat to the ecological environment. Presently, the majority of studies focus on the effects of environmental compounds on R plasmid-mediated conjugation transfer, and pheromone-inducible conjugation has largely been neglected. In this study, we explored the pheromone effect and potential molecular mechanisms of estradiol in promoting the conjugative transfer of pCF10 plasmid in Enterococcus faecalis. Environmentally relevant concentrations of estradiol significantly increased the conjugative transfer of pCF10 with a maximum frequency of 3.2 × 10^-2, up to 3.5-fold change compared to that of control. Exposure to estradiol induced the activation of pheromone signaling cascade by increasing the expression of ccfA. Furthermore, estradiol might directly bind to the pheromone receptor PrgZ and promote pCF10 induction and finally enhance the conjugative transfer of pCF10. These findings cast valuable insights on the roles of estradiol and its homolog in increasing antibiotic resistance and the potential ecological risk.

Waterborne exposure during non-consumptive domestic use of surface water: a population study across WASH service levels in rural India

Exposure to pathogens from domestic use of surface water is understudied. In many low- and middle-income countries, surface water is used for hygiene, sanitation, amenity, and recreational purposes. In this study, self-reported use of and structured observations at community ponds were collected to measure waterborne exposure across water and sanitation service levels in a rural population of Khorda District, India. Overall, 86% of households (n = 200) reported using ponds on a regular basis. Among observed people (n = 765), 82% put water into their mouth at least once, with a median frequency of five occurrences per visit. Reported and observation data were combined to estimate the proportion (p) of the population that put water in their mouth at least once per day, and their mean daily rate of oral exposure (OE). These were highest for individuals with neither safely managed water nor basic sanitation access (p = 93%, OE = 14 day^-1), but still high among those with both (p = 67%, OE = 6 day^-1). The results suggest widespread exposure to waterborne pathogens in settings where non-potable surface water bodies continue to be used for domestic purposes, even among households with access to safely managed drinking water.

Screening of Antibacterial Activity of Some Resupinate Fungi, Reveal Gloeocystidiellum lojanense sp. nov. (Russulales) against E. coli from Ecuador

Bacterial resistance to antibiotics is a serious public health problem that needs new antibacterial compounds for control. Fungi, including resupinated fungi, are a potential source to discover new bioactive compounds efficient again to bacteria resistant to antibiotics. The inhibitory capacity against the bacterial species was statistically evaluated. All the species (basidiomata and strains) were molecularly characterized with the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 barcoding marker. The strains Ceraceomyces sp., Fuscoporia sp., Gloeocystidiellum sp., Oliveonia sp., Phanerochaete sp., and Xenasmatella sp. correspond to resupinate Basidiomycetes, and only the strain Hypocrea sp. is an Ascomycete, suggesting contamination to the basidiome of Tulasnella sp. According to the antagonistic test, only the Gloeocystidiellum sp. strain had antibacterial activity against the bacterial species Escherichia coli of clinical interest. Statistically, Gloeocystidiellum sp. was significantly (<0.001) active against two E. coli pathotypes (O157:H7 and ATCC 25922). Contrarily, the antibacterial activity of fungi against other pathotypes of E. coli and other strains such as Serratia sp. was not significant. The antibacterial activity between 48 and 72 h increased according to the measurement of the inhibition halos. Because of this antibacterial activity, Gloeocystidiellum sp. was taxonomically studied in deep combined morphological and molecular characterization (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2; partial LSU D1/D2 of nrDNA). A new species Gloeocystidiellum lojanense, a resupinate and corticioid fungus from a tropical montane rainforest of southern Ecuador, with antibacterial potential against E. coli, is proposed to the science.

Mechanism of Biofilm Formation on Installation Materials and Its Impact on the Quality of Tap Water

In the conducted study, an attempt was made to verify and evaluate the impact of the biofilm formed on the surfaces of the installation material on the quality and sanitary safety of tap water reaching the consumer. For biofilm studies, fractal analysis and quantitative bacteriological analysis were used. The quality of tap water flowing through the experimental installation (semi-technical scale) was determined using physicochemical and microbiological parameters. The quantitative analysis of the biofilm showed that an increase in the number of microorganisms was observed in the initial phase of biofilm formation (reached 1.4 × 104 CFU/mL/cm2 on day 14). During this period, there was a chaotic build-up of bacterial cells, as evidenced by an increase in the roughness of the profile lines. Unstable elevations of the biofilm formed in this way could be easily detached from the structure of the material, which resulted in deterioration of the bacteriological quality of the water leaving the installation. The obtained results indicate that the biofilm completely and permanently covered the surface of the tested material after 25 days of testing (the surface roughness described by the fractal dimension decreased). Moreover, the favorable temperature (22.6 °C) and the recorded decrease in the content of inorganic nitrogen (by 15%), phosphorus (by 14%), and dissolved oxygen (by 15%) confirm the activity of microorganisms. The favorable environmental conditions in the installation (the presence of nutrients, low chlorine concentration, and high temperature) contributed to the secondary development of microorganisms, including pathogenic organisms in the tested waters.

Surface water sodium (Na+) concentration prediction using hybrid weighted exponential regression model with gradient-based optimization

Undeniably, there is a link between water resources and people's lives and, consequently, economic development, which makes them vital in health and the environment. Proper water quality forecasting time series has a crucial role in giving on-time warnings for water pollution and supporting the decision-making of water resource management. The principal aim of this study is to develop a novel and cutting-edge ensemble data intelligence model named the weighted exponential regression and hybridized by gradient-based optimization (WER-GBO). Indeed, this is to reach more meticulous sodium (Na⁺) prediction monthly at Maroon River in the southwest of Iran. This developed model has advantages over other previous methodologies thanks to the following merits: (i) it can improve the performance and ability by mixing the outputs of four distinct data intelligence (DI) models, i.e., adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), least square support vector regression (LSSVM), Bayesian linear regression (BLR), and response surface regression (RSR); (ii) the proposed model can employ a Cauchy weighted function combined with an exponential-based regression model being optimized by GBO algorithm. To evaluate the performance of these models, diverse statistical indices and graphical assessment including error distributions, box plots, scatter-plots with confidence bounds and Taylor diagrams were conducted. According to obtained statistical metrics and verified validation procedures, the proposed WER-GBO resulted in promising accuracy compared to other models. Furthermore, the outcomes revealed the WER-GBO (R = 0.9712, RMSE = 0.639, and KGE = 0.948) reached more accurate and reliable results than other methods such as the ANFIS, LSSVM, BLR, and RSR for Na prediction in this study. Hence, the WER-GBO model can be considered a constructive technique to forecast the water quality parameters.

A Mobile Laboratory Enables Fecal Pollution Source Tracking in Catchments Using Onsite qPCR Assays

Onsite molecular diagnostics can revolutionize fecal pollution source tracking. We aimed to validate a method for onsite qPCR assays with a miniature speaker-sized Q qPCR instrument and other portable equipment items. We showed that marker genes for total bacteria (16S) and E. coli (rodA) in 100 mL of river water measured with this method agreed within ±0.3 log10 units with results obtained when using conventional laboratory equipment items. We then deployed the portable method in a mobile laboratory (‘lab in a van’) and quantified HF183 marker genes for human host associated Bacteroides in river water within 3 h of sampling. We also used the mobile laboratory to investigate urban river water and effluents from two storm drains and a retention pond and collected comprehensive microbial and physicochemical water quality data. We found significantly higher HF183 gene levels in the older storm drain compared to the river water (6.03 ± 0.04 vs. 4.23 ± 0.03 log10 gene copies per 100 mL), and a principal component analysis revealed that storm drain effluent retention in a pond beneficially altered water characteristics, making them more like those of the receiving river. In conclusion, onsite qPCR assays can be performed with portable equipment items to quickly test water.

Geospatial assessment of water quality using principal components analysis (PCA) and water quality index (WQI) in Basho Valley, Gilgit Baltistan (Northern Areas of Pakistan)

Public health quality in Gilgit Baltistan (GB) is at threat due to multiple water-borne diseases. Anthropogenic activities are accelerating the burden of pollution load on the glacio-fluvial streams and surface water resources of Basho Valley in Skardu district of GB. The present research has investigated the drinking water quality of the Basho Valley that is being used for domestic purposes. The study also comprehends public health status by addressing the basis drinking water quality parameters. A total of 23 water samples were collected and then analyzed to elucidate the current status of physico-chemical, metals, and microbial parameters. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied and three principal components were obtained accounting 53.04% of the total variance, altogether. PCA identified that metallic and microbial parameters are the major factor to influence the water quality of the valley. Meanwhile, water quality index (WQI) was also computed and it was observed that WQI of the valley is characterized as excellent in terms of physico-chemical characteristics; however, metals and microbial WQI shows most of the samples are unfit for drinking purpose. Spatial distribution is also interpolated using the Inverse distance weight (IDW) to anticipate the results of mean values of parameters and WQI scores. The study concludes that water quality is satisfactory in terms of physico-chemical characteristics; however, analysis of metals shows that the concentrations of copper (Cu) (0.40 ± 0.16 mg/L), lead (Pb) (0.24 ± 0.10 mg/L), zinc (Zn) (6.77 ± 27.1 mg/L), manganese (Mn) (0.19 ± 0.05), and molybdenum (Mo) (0.07 ± 0.02 mg/L) are exceeding the maximum permissible limit as set in the WHO guidelines for drinking water. Similarly, the results of the microbial analysis indicate that the water samples are heavily contaminated with fecal pollution (TCC, TFC, and TFS > 3 MPN/100 mL). On the basis of PCA, WQI, and IDW, the main sources of pollution are most likely to be concluded as the anthropogenic activities including incoming pollution load from upstream channels. A few underlying sources by natural process of weathering and erosion may also cause release of metals in surface and groundwater. This study recommends ensuring public health with regular monitoring and assessment of water resources in the valley.

Assessment of current status and geospatial analysis of compliance to bacteriological parameters: Tools to ensure access to safe water in Sri Lanka

Compliance of drinking-water to bacteriological parameters serves as a surrogate measure of the risk of water-borne diseases. Understanding the risk of water-borne diseases could help promote healthy behaviors such as household water treatment and safe water storage practices and advocacy to increase access to centrally-managed piped water. The objective of this research was to assess the current status of compliance and to geospatially analyze the probability of compliance to bacteriological parameters in the Western Province of Sri Lanka. A drinking-water quality survey was conducted among 4508 households representing four water-source types: National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB), dug wells, Community Water Supply (CWS), and tube wells, and other sources. Besides, a detailed assessment of selected NWSDB and CWS supplies was done. Water samples were tested for the total coliform count, thermotolerant coliform count, and free residual chlorine levels against the Sri Lanka Standards. Indicator kriging was performed using the geospatial analyst tool of ArcGIS version 10.6 for different water source types to interpolate the probability of compliance for both total coliform count and thermotolerant coliform count. The bacteriological compliance decreased from NWSDB to tube wells and other sources to CWS to dug wells. The interpolation maps confirm the relatively higher compliance of NWSDB for bacteriological parameters compared to other sources. Areas with a high probability of compliance for both parameters show considerable overlap with urban areas with a supply of centrally managed water from the NWSDB. It is recommended to expand the coverage of NWSDB water, strengthen the drinking-water quality surveillance system and water safety plans, and promote household water treatment and safe storage practices in the Western Province of Sri Lanka.

Access to Water and Sanitation Infrastructures for Primary Schoolchildren in the South-Central Part of Côte d'Ivoire

In rural settings of Côte d'Ivoire, access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) at schools is often lacking. The purpose of this study was to assess the availability, quality, and use of WASH infrastructure in schools in the south-central part of Côte d'Ivoire, and to determine the hygiene practices of schoolchildren. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 20 primary schools with (n = 10) or without (n = 10) direct access to drinking water. The survey was comprised of a questionnaire directed at schoolchildren aged 8-17 years, an assessment of the WASH infrastructure, and the testing of drinking water samples for Escherichia coli and total coliforms. Overall, 771 schoolchildren were enrolled in the study. One out of four children (24.9%) reported that they used available toilets. Among those children not using toilets, more than half (57.5%) reported that they practised open defecation. Drinking water infrastructure was limited in most schools because of poor storage tanks, the low flow of water, or broken wells. All drinking water samples (n = 18) tested positive for total coliforms and 15 (83.3%) tested positive for E. coli. The lack of WASH infrastructures in primary schools in the south-central part of Côte d'Ivoire, in combination with poor hygiene practices, might govern disease transmission and absenteeism at school, especially among females.

WITHDRAWN: Health risk appraisal of rural population in poverty

Ahead of Print article withdrawn by publisher.

Control strategies to improve the low water quality of Souk-Ahras city

This work reports control strategies of the water quality in the city of Souk-Ahras (east Algeria). With the recent development, rapid population growth, and the consequences of climate change, the capacity of water supply reserves becomes more unpredictable in the long term. This has drastically affected the distributed water quantity. A correlation between bacteriological water analysis and the analysis of pollution indicative physicochemical parameters is developed to replace the slow bacteriological analysis, which takes more than two days, by directly accessible physicochemical analysis to anticipate the case-onset of waterborne diseases. A good correlation is found between different combinations of physicochemical pollution parameters: (Turbidity, Nitrates); (Turbidity, Active chlorine) (nitrates, active chlorine); (Ammonium, Chlorine) and (Turbidity, Ammonium) with Spearman rank coefficients of 0.8657, -0.8602 and -0.8531 -0.8227 et 0.7957 respectively. Besides, long term analysis (over several years) revealed a high correlation of more than 0.92 between the analysis of pollution indicative physicochemical parameters and bacteriological analysis. The EPANET software is used to simulate the hydraulic behaviour of the network system over an extended period within pressurized and pressure-deficient conditions. The simulation results of several supply scenarios of daily drinking water pressure in the city center area show that 62% of drinking water distribution system is supplied with a steep slope (80 m), 10% with unsatisfactory pressure and only 23% with acceptable pressure (1–80 m).

Therefore, the high working pressure at the mesh, and the interruptions of the water supply are factors that can lead to the occurrence of cross-connection cases. This diagnosis of the defects in the water supply system is combined with a statistical data analysis of physicochemical parameters to set up an effective sampling strategy that takes into account the frequency of analysis and the areas at risk to prevent the risk of waterborne diseases.

Impacts of rapid urbanization on characteristics, sources and variation of fecal coliform at watershed scale

Microbial pollution is an environmental problem of growing concern for threatening human health. However, the impacts of rapid urbanization on characteristics, sources and variation of fecal coliform (FC) at watershed scale have not been fully explored. In this study, FC characteristics were monitored monthly for 2 years at 21 river sections in an urbanizing watershed, while the sources and continuously annual variation were quantified by integrating two commonly-used models. The results showed that FC varied from 10³ to 10⁶ MPN/L, indicating a great spatiotemporal variation at watershed scale. Peak FC occurred in summer and autumn among upstream and downstream areas, respectively. Besides, 65% impermeable surface was identified as the threshold of urban level, beyond which the key FC source would shift from agriculture to urban. It was also found that the changes of urban landscape patterns had poor correlation with annual variation of FC. In comparison, urbanization speed was identified as the major driver with the threshold of 30% for deteriorating FC pollution. The Low Impact Development could result in a 5.13%-97.59% reduction of FC at watershed scale.

Navigating Data Uncertainty and Modeling Assumptions in Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment in an Informal Settlement in Kampala, Uganda

Decision-makers in developing communities often lack credible data to inform decisions related to water, sanitation, and hygiene. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), which quantifies pathogen-related health risks across exposure routes, can be informative; however, the utility of QMRA for decision-making is often undermined by data gaps. This work integrates QMRA, uncertainty and sensitivity analyses, and household surveys in Bwaise, Kampala (Uganda) to characterize the implications of censored data management, identify sources of uncertainty, and incorporate risk perceptions to improve the suitability of QMRA for informal settlements or similar settings. In Bwaise, drinking water, hand rinse, and soil samples were collected from 45 households and supplemented with data from 844 surveys. Quantified pathogen (adenovirus, Campylobacter jejuni, and Shigella spp./EIEC) concentrations were used with QMRA to model infection risks from exposure through drinking water, hand-to-mouth contact, and soil ingestion. Health risks were most sensitive to pathogen data, hand-to-mouth contact frequency, and dose-response models (particularly C. jejuni). When managing censored data, results from upper limits of detection, half of limits of detection, and uniform distributions returned similar results, which deviated from lower limits of detection and maximum likelihood estimation imputation approaches. Finally, risk perceptions (e.g., it is unsafe to drink directly from a water source) were identified to inform risk management.

Urban river pollution in Bangladesh during last 40 years: potential public health and ecological risk, present policy, and future prospects toward smart water management

River water is very much important for domestic, agriculture and industrial use in Bangladesh which is in critical condition from long time based on research data. During last 40 years, extreme pollution events occurred in peripheral rivers surrounding Dhaka city and Karnaphuli River in Chittagong city. Present data showed that other urban rivers are also in critical condition especially Korotoa, Teesta, Rupsha, Pashur and Padma. The pollutants flowing with water made a severe pollution in downstream areas of rivers. Metals concentrations in river water was found to be higher in dry season. Dissolve oxygen (DO) was nearly zero in Buriganga River and several points in Turag, Balu, Sitalakhya and Karnaphuli River. NO₃^-, NO₂^- and PO₄^3- pollution occurred in different rivers. Zn, Cu, Fe, Pb, Cd, Ni, Mn, As and Cr concentration was above drinking water standard in most of the river and some metals was even above irrigation standard in water from several rivers. Sediment data showed very much higher metal concentrations in most of the rivers especially peripheral rivers in Dhaka and Karnaphuli, Korotoa, Teesta, Rupsha and Meghna River. Metal concentrations in sediment was above US EPA threshold value in most of the rivers. Metal concentrations in fish and agricultural crops showed that bioaccumulations of metals had occurred. The concentration of metals showed the trend like: water<fish<sediment. Agricultural crops were found to contain toxic metals through polluted water irrigation. The calculated data of daily intake for the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic showed that consumption of the contaminated foodstuff can cause serious health injuries.

Spatiotemporal variability and key influencing factors of river fecal coliform within a typical complex watershed

Fecal coliform bacteria are a key indicator of human health risks; however, the spatiotemporal variability and key influencing factors of river fecal coliform have yet to be explored in a rural-suburban-urban watershed with multiple land uses. In this study, the fecal coliform concentrations in 21 river sections were monitored for 20 months, and 441 samples were analyzed. Multivariable regressions were used to evaluate the spatiotemporal dynamics of fecal coliform. The results showed that spatial differences were mainly dominated by urbanization level, and environmental factors could explain the temporal dynamics of fecal coliform in different urban patterns except in areas with high urbanization levels. Reducing suspended solids is a direct way to manage fecal coliform in the Beiyun River when the natural factors are difficulty to change, such as temperature and solar radiation. The export of fecal coliform from urban areas showed a quick and sensitive response to rainfall events and increased dozens of times in the short term. Landscape patterns, such as the fragmentation of impervious surfaces and the overall landscape, were identified as key factors influencing urban non-point source bacteria. The results obtained from this study will provide insight into the management of river fecal pollution.