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Katsuyama E, Suarez-Fueyo A, Bradley SJ, Mizui M, Marin AV, Mulki L, Krishfield S, Malavasi F, Yoon J, Sui SJH, Kyttaris VC, Tsokos GC. The CD38/NAD/SIRTUIN1/EZH2 Axis Mitigates Cytotoxic CD8 T Cell Function and Identifies Patients with SLE Prone to Infections. Cell Rep 2021; 30:112-123.e4. [PMID: 31914379 PMCID: PMC7577012 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) suffer frequent infections that account for significant morbidity and mortality. T cell cytotoxic responses are decreased in patients with SLE, yet the responsible molecular events are largely unknown. We find an expanded CD8CD38high T cell subset in a sub-group of patients with increased rates of infections. CD8CD38high T cells from healthy subjects and patients with SLE display decreased cytotoxic capacity, degranulation, and expression of granzymes A and B and perforin. The key cytotoxicity-related transcription factors T-bet, RUNX3, and EOMES are decreased in CD8CD38high T cells. CD38 leads to increased acetylated EZH2 through inhibition of the deacetylase Sirtuin1. Acetylated EZH2 represses RUNX3 expression, whereas inhibition of EZH2 restores CD8 T cell cytotoxic responses. We propose that high levels of CD38 lead to decreased CD8 T cell-mediated cytotoxicity and increased propensity to infections in patients with SLE, a process that can be reversed pharmacologically. Katsuyama et al. find that an expanded CD8CD38high T cell population in SLE patients is linked to infections. CD8CD38high T cells display decreased cytotoxic capacity by suppressing the expression of related molecules through an NAD+/Sirtuin1/EZH2 pathway. EZH2 inhibitors increase cytotoxicity offering a means to mitigate infection rates in SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Katsuyama
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Abel Suarez-Fueyo
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sean J Bradley
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Masayuki Mizui
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ana V Marin
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Lama Mulki
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Suzanne Krishfield
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Fabio Malavasi
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, Department of Genetics, Biology and Biochemistry, University of Torino, and Fondazione Ricerca Molinette, Torino, Italy
| | - Joon Yoon
- Harvard Chan Bioinformatics Core, Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Shannan J Ho Sui
- Harvard Chan Bioinformatics Core, Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Vasileios C Kyttaris
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - George C Tsokos
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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Hu Z, Jiang W, Gu L, Qiao D, Shu T, Lowrie DB, Lu SH, Fan XY. Heterologous prime-boost vaccination against tuberculosis with recombinant Sendai virus and DNA vaccines. J Mol Med (Berl) 2019; 97:1685-1694. [PMID: 31786669 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-019-01844-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In an earlier study, a novel Sendai virus-vectored anti-tuberculosis vaccine encoding Ag85A and Ag85B (SeV85AB) was constructed and shown to elicit antigen-specific T cell responses and protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection in a murine model. In this study, we evaluate whether the immune responses induced by this novel vaccine might be elevated by a recombinant DNA vaccine expressing the same antigen in a heterologous prime-boost vaccination strategy. The results showed that both SeV85AB prime-DNA boost (SeV85AB-DNA) and DNA prime-SeV85AB boost (DNA-SeV85AB) vaccination strategies significantly enhanced the antigen-specific T cell responses induced by the separate vaccines. The SeV85AB-DNA immunization regimen induced higher levels of recall T cell responses after Mtb infection and conferred better immune protection compared with DNA-SeV85AB or a single immunization. Collectively, our study lends strong evidence that a DNA vaccine boost might be included in a novel SeV85AB immunization strategy designed to enhance the immune protection against Mtb. KEY MESSAGES: A heterologous prime-boost regimen with a novel recombinant SeV85AB and a DNA vaccine increase the T cell responses above those from a single vaccine. The heterologous prime-boost regimen provided protection against Mtb infection. The DNA vaccine might be included in a novel SeV85AB immunization strategy designed to enhance the immune protection against Mtb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhidong Hu
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOE/MOH, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201508, China
| | - Weimin Jiang
- Departments of Infectious Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Ling Gu
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOE/MOH, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201508, China.,School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China.,TB Center, Shanghai Emerging and Re-emerging Institute, Shanghai, 201508, China
| | - Dan Qiao
- Ruijin Hospital (North), Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, 201801, China
| | | | - Douglas B Lowrie
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOE/MOH, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201508, China.,TB Center, Shanghai Emerging and Re-emerging Institute, Shanghai, 201508, China
| | - Shui-Hua Lu
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOE/MOH, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201508, China. .,School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China. .,TB Center, Shanghai Emerging and Re-emerging Institute, Shanghai, 201508, China.
| | - Xiao-Yong Fan
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China. .,TB Center, Shanghai Emerging and Re-emerging Institute, Shanghai, 201508, China.
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Prisilla A, Chellapandi P. Cloning and expression of immunogenic Clostridium botulinum C2I mutant proteins designed from their evolutionary imprints. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2019; 65:207-212. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2019.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 12/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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MohanKrishnan A, Patel H, Bhurani V, Parmar R, Yadav N, Dave N, Rana S, Gupta S, Madariya J, Vyas P, Dalai SK. Inclusion of non-target antigen in vaccination favors generation of OVA specific CD4 memory T cells. Cell Immunol 2019; 337:1-14. [PMID: 30773218 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2018.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2018] [Revised: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Inducing long-lived memory T cells by sub-unit vaccines has been a challenge. Subunit vaccines containing single immunogenic target antigen from a given pathogen have been designed with the presumption of mimicking the condition associated with natural infection, but fail to induce quality memory responses. In this study, we have included non-target antigens with vaccine candidate, OVA, in the inoculum containing TLR ligands to suffice the minimal condition of pathogen to provoke immune response. We found that inclusion of immunogenic HEL (hen egg lysozyme) or poorly immunogenic MBP (Myelin Basic protein) non-target antigen enhances the OVA specific CD4 T cell responses. Interestingly, poorly immunogenic MBP was found to strongly favor the generation of OVA specific memory CD4 T cells. MBP not only improves magnitude of T cell response but also promotes the T cells to undergo higher cycles of division, one of the characteristic of central memory T cells. Inclusion of MBP with vaccine targets was also found to promote multiple cytokine producing CD4 T cells. We also found that challenge of host with non-target antigen MBP favors generation of central Memory T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hardik Patel
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Vishakha Bhurani
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Rajesh Parmar
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Naveen Yadav
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Niyam Dave
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Sonal Rana
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Somnath Gupta
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Jagdish Madariya
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Prerak Vyas
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
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Svitek N, Saya R, Awino E, Munyao S, Muriuki R, Njoroge T, Pellé R, Ndiwa N, Poole J, Gilbert S, Nene V, Steinaa L. An Ad/MVA vectored Theileria parva antigen induces schizont-specific CD8 + central memory T cells and confers partial protection against a lethal challenge. NPJ Vaccines 2018; 3:35. [PMID: 30245859 PMCID: PMC6134044 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-018-0073-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The parasite Theileria parva is the causative agent of East Coast fever (ECF), one of the most serious cattle diseases in sub-Saharan Africa, and directly impacts smallholder farmers’ livelihoods. There is an efficient live-parasite vaccine, but issues with transmission of vaccine strains, need of a cold chain, and antibiotics limit its utilization. This has fostered research towards subunit vaccination. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) are crucial in combating the infection by lysing T. parva-infected cells. Tp1 is an immunodominant CTL antigen, which induces Tp1-specific responses in 70–80% of cattle of the A18 or A18v haplotype during vaccination with the live vaccine. In this study, human adenovirus serotype 5 (HAd5) and modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) were assessed for their ability to induce Tp1-specific immunity. Both viral vectors expressing the Tp1 antigen were inoculated in cattle by a heterologous prime-boost vaccination regimen. All 15 animals responded to Tp1 as determined by ELISpot. Of these, 14 reacted to the known Tp1 epitope, assayed by ELISpot and tetramer analyses, with CTL peaking 1-week post-MVA boost. Eleven animals developed CTL with specific cytotoxic activity towards peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) pulsed with the Tp1 epitope. Moreover, 36% of the animals with a Tp1 epitope-specific response survived a lethal challenge with T. parva 5 weeks post-MVA boost. Reduction of the parasitemia correlated with increased percentages of central memory lymphocytes in the Tp1 epitope-specific CD8+ populations. These results indicate that Tp1 is a promising antigen to include in a subunit vaccine and central memory cells are crucial for clearing the parasite. A vaccine expressing parasitic proteins offers more convenient East Coast fever prophylaxis. Current vaccination for the cattle disease, caused by the parasite Theileria parva and a detriment to sub-Saharan African farmers, involves inconvenient injection with live parasites before antibiotic treatment (ITM). A collaboration led by Nicholas Svitek, of the Kenyan International Livestock Research Institute, designed a candidate to provoke cellular immune responses against the parasitic antigen Tp1—an ITM vaccine candidate. In tests on cattle, 93% created Tp1-targeting T cells, and 33% survived a lethal dose of T. parva. The East Coast fever reduction seen in animals in this research outperformed a recent study and was able to generate the same immune memory cells that ITM inspires to provide long-lasting protection. Future research might integrate more antigens with this Tp1 vaccine to provide more comprehensive protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Svitek
- 1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Rosemary Saya
- 1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Elias Awino
- 1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Stephen Munyao
- 1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Robert Muriuki
- 1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Thomas Njoroge
- 1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Roger Pellé
- 1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Nicholas Ndiwa
- 1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Jane Poole
- 1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Sarah Gilbert
- 2The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive Oxford, OX3 7DQ UK
| | - Vishvanath Nene
- 1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Lucilla Steinaa
- 1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
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Sali M, Dainese E, Morandi M, Zumbo A, Rocca S, Goussard S, Palù G, Grillot-Courvalin C, Delogu G, Manganelli R. Homologous prime boosting based on intranasal delivery of non-pathogenic invasive Escherichia coli expressing MPT64, decreases Mycobacterium tuberculosis dissemination. Vaccine 2014; 32:4051-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.05.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2013] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Trentini MM, de Oliveira FM, Gaeti MPN, Batista AC, Lima EM, Kipnis A, Junqueira-Kipnis AP. Microstructured liposome subunit vaccines reduce lung inflammation and bacterial load after Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Vaccine 2014; 32:4324-32. [PMID: 24951861 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.06.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Revised: 05/04/2014] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tuberculosis is a disease affecting millions of people throughout the world. One of the main problems in controlling the disease is the low efficacy of the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine in protecting young adults. The development of new vaccines that induce a long-lasting immune response or that stimulate the immunity induced by BCG may improve the control of tuberculosis. METHODS The use of microstructured liposomes containing HspX, with or without MPL or CpG DNA adjuvants, as vaccines for tuberculosis was evaluated. The HspX-specific humoral and cellular immune responses to the different vaccine formulations were compared. RESULTS All vaccines containing liposome microparticles and HspX were immunogenic. Vaccines formulated with CpG DNA and HspX induced the strongest humoral and cellular immune responses, mainly by inducing interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α expression by both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. HspX and MPL mainly induced CD8(+) T-cell activation and specific humoral responses. When evaluated the protective efficacy of the formulations against Mycobacterium tuberculosis challenge, the microstructured liposome containing L-HspX and L-HspX-CPG DNA reduced both lung inflammatory lesions and the bacterial load. CONCLUSION We have thus demonstrated, for the first time, the use of microstructured liposomes as an adjuvant and delivery system for a vaccine formulation against tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monalisa Martins Trentini
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia das Doenças Infecciosas, Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Brazil
| | - Fábio Muniz de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Bacteriologia Molecular, Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Brazil
| | | | - Aline Carvalho Batista
- Laboratório de Patologia, Faculdade de Odontologia, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Brazil
| | - Eliana Martins Lima
- Laboratório de Nanotecnologia Farmacêutica - FarmaTec, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Brazil
| | - André Kipnis
- Laboratório de Bacteriologia Molecular, Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Junqueira-Kipnis
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia das Doenças Infecciosas, Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Brazil.
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Montagnani C, Chiappini E, Galli L, de Martino M. Vaccine against tuberculosis: what's new? BMC Infect Dis 2014; 14 Suppl 1:S2. [PMID: 24564340 PMCID: PMC4015960 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-14-s1-s2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background one of the World Health Organization Millennium Development Goal is to reduce tuberculosis incidence by 2015. However, more of 8.5 million tuberculosis cases have been reported in 2011, with an increase of multidrug-resistant strains. Therefore, the World Health Organization target cannot be reach without the help of a vaccine able to limit the spread of tuberculosis. Nowadays, bacille Calmette-Guérin is the only vaccine available against tuberculosis. It prevents against meningeal and disseminated tuberculosis in children, but its effectiveness against pulmonary form in adolescents and adults is argued. Method a systematic review was performed by searches of Pubmed, references of the relevant articles and Aeras and ClinicalTrial.gov websites. Results 100 articles were included in this review. Three viral vectored booster vaccines, five protein adjuvant booster vaccines, two priming vaccines and two therapeutic vaccines have been analyzed. Conclusions Several vaccines are in the pipeline, but further studies on basic research, clinical trial and mass vaccination campaigns are needed to achieve the TB eradication target by 2050.
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Lu M, Xia ZY, Bao L. Enhancement of antimycobacterial Th1-cell responses by a Mycobacterium bovis BCG prime-protein boost vaccination strategy. Cell Immunol 2013; 285:111-7. [PMID: 24177251 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2013.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2013] [Revised: 09/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/01/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis is a major global health problem, and the only available vaccine Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) is not sufficiently effective against the disease. It is extremely urgent to develop novel vaccine approaches. Previous research demonstrated that there were several Regions of Difference (RD1-16) between the substrains of BCG and Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis. The ORFs Rv1769 and Rv1772 are located in the RD14 deletions and have not been major targets of study. However, some studies have demonstrated that the two genes (Rv1769 and Rv1772) are excellent T cell antigens, which might induce an immune response. What kind of role these ORFs might play in anti-mycobacterial immunity, however, is still unknown. In our research we used the BCG prime-protein boost strategy to immunize BALB/c mice and evaluated its immunogenicity. Our data suggest that our novel BCG-P+PRO69 vaccine could elicit the most long-lasting and strongest Th1 type cellular immune responses. This response is characterized by a strong antibody response, the proliferation rate of splenocytes, a high percentage of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and high levels of IFN-γ in antigen-stimulated splenocyte cultures. These results indicate that prime-boost is a potent strategy and the protein of gene Rv1769 is a potential antigen or subunit vaccine to TB for further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao Lu
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, School of Basic Medical Science, West China Center of Medical Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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Cheng Y, Schorey JS. Exosomes carrying mycobacterial antigens can protect mice against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Eur J Immunol 2013; 43:3279-90. [PMID: 23943377 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201343727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Revised: 07/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Approximately 2 billion people are infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the etiological agent of tuberculosis (TB), and an estimated 1.5 million individuals die annually from TB. Presently, Mycobacterium bovis BCG remains the only licensed TB vaccine; however, previous studies suggest its protective efficacy wanes over time and fails in preventing pulmonary TB. Therefore, a safe and effective vaccine is urgently required to replace BCG or boost BCG immunizations. Our previous studies revealed that mycobacterial proteins are released via exosomes from macrophages infected with M. tuberculosis or pulsed with M. tuberculosis culture filtrate proteins (CFP). In the present study, exosomes purified from macrophages treated with M. tuberculosis CFP were found to induce antigen-specific IFN-γ and IL-2-expressing CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. In exosome-vaccinated mice, there was a similar TH1 immune response but a more limited TH2 response compared to BCG-vaccinated mice. Using a low-dose M. tuberculosis mouse aerosol infection model, exosomes from CFP-treated macrophages were found to both prime a protective immune response as well as boost prior BCG immunization. The protection was equal to or superior to BCG. In conclusion, our findings suggest that exosomes might serve as a novel cell-free vaccine against an M. tuberculosis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Cheng
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Rare and Neglected Diseases and Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
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