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Marcos P, Doyle A, Whyte P, Rogers TR, McElroy M, Fanning S, Frias J, Bolton D. Characterization of Food Chain Clostridioides difficile Isolates in Terms of Ribotype and Antimicrobial Resistance. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1296. [PMID: 37317270 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11051296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to characterize C. difficile isolates from the farm, abattoir, and retail outlets in Ireland in terms of ribotype and antibiotic resistance (vancomycin, erythromycin, metronidazole, moxifloxacin, clindamycin, and rifampicin) using PCR and E-test methods, respectively. The most common ribotype in all stages of the food chain (including retail foods) was 078 and a variant (RT078/4). Less commonly reported (014/0, 002/1, 049, and 205) and novel (RT530, 547, and 683) ribotypes were also detected, but at lower frequencies. Approximately 72% (26/36 tested) of the isolates tested were resistant to at least one antibiotic, with the majority of these (65%; 17/26) displaying a multi-drug (three to five antibiotics) resistant phenotype. It was concluded that ribotype 078, a hypervirulent strain commonly associated with C. difficile infection (CDI) in Ireland, was the most frequent ribotype along the food chain, resistance to clinically important antibiotics was common in C. difficile food chain isolates, and there was no relationship between ribotype and antibiotic resistance profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Marcos
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, D15 KN3K Dublin, Ireland
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Aoife Doyle
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin, Central Pathology Laboratory, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, D08 RX0X Dublin, Ireland
- Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Backweston, Celbridge, W23 X3PH Kildare, Ireland
| | - Paul Whyte
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Thomas R Rogers
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin, Central Pathology Laboratory, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, D08 RX0X Dublin, Ireland
| | - Máire McElroy
- Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Backweston, Celbridge, W23 X3PH Kildare, Ireland
| | - Seamus Fanning
- UCD-Centre for Food Safety, School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sports Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jesus Frias
- Environmental Sustainability and Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Grangegorman, Dublin 7, D07 H6K8 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Declan Bolton
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, D15 KN3K Dublin, Ireland
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Make It Less difficile: Understanding Genetic Evolution and Global Spread of Clostridioides difficile. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13122200. [PMID: 36553467 PMCID: PMC9778335 DOI: 10.3390/genes13122200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is an obligate anaerobic pathogen among the most common causes of healthcare-associated infections. It poses a global threat due to the clinical outcomes of infection and resistance to antibiotics recommended by international guidelines for its eradication. In particular, C. difficile infection can lead to fulminant colitis associated with shock, hypotension, megacolon, and, in severe cases, death. It is therefore of the utmost urgency to fully characterize this pathogen and better understand its spread, in order to reduce infection rates and improve therapy success. This review aims to provide a state-of-the-art overview of the genetic variation of C. difficile, with particular regard to pathogenic genes and the correlation with clinical issues of its infection. We also summarize the current typing techniques and, based on them, the global distribution of the most common ribotypes. Finally, we discuss genomic surveillance actions and new genetic engineering strategies as future perspectives to make it less difficile.
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Natural Rubber (NR) Latex Films with Antimicrobial Properties for Stethoscope Diaphragm Covers. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15103433. [PMID: 35629460 PMCID: PMC9146985 DOI: 10.3390/ma15103433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Systematic disinfection of the stethoscope diaphragm is required to ensure that it does not act as a vector for cross-transmission of health-related diseases. Thus, an antimicrobial latex film could be used as a cover to inhibit pathogenic bacteria from growing on its surface. The aim of this work is to determine the antimicrobial activity and mechanical properties of antimicrobial natural rubber (NR) latex films with different types of antimicrobial agents (mangosteen peel powder (MPP), zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NP), and povidone-iodine (PVP-I)). The antimicrobial loading was varied from 0.5, to 1.0, and 2.0 phr to monitor the effective inhibition of Gram-negative bacteria and fungi growth. For MPP and PVP-I antimicrobial agents, a loading of 2.0 phr showed good antimicrobial efficacy with the largest zone of inhibition. Simultaneously, ZnO NP demonstrated excellent antimicrobial activity at low concentrations. The addition of antimicrobial agents shows a comparable effect on the mechanical properties of NR latex films. In comparison to control NR latex film (29.41 MPa, 48.49 N/mm), antimicrobial-filled films have significantly greater tensile and tear strengths (MPP (33.84 MPa, 65.21 N/mm), ZnO NP (31.79 MPa, 52.77 N/mm), and PVP-I (33.25 MPa, 50.75 N/mm). In conclusion, the addition of antimicrobial agents, particularly ZnO NP, can be a better choice for NR latex films because they will serve as both an activator and an antimicrobial. In a clinical context, with regard to frequently used medical equipment such as a stethoscope, such an approach offers significant promise to aid infection control.
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Kullin B, Abratt VR, Reid SJ, Riley TV. Clostridioides difficile infection in Africa: A narrative review. Anaerobe 2022; 74:102549. [PMID: 35337974 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2022.102549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Revised: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection (CDI) places a burden on healthcare facilities worldwide. Most research studies have been concentrated in high-income countries in North America, Europe, Asia and Australia, where C. difficile is the leading cause of diarrhoea associated with antimicrobial use. This narrative review summarises African CDI studies, focussing on reports published in the last 20 years. Although relatively sparse, the data suggest that CDI is an important cause of diarrhoea on the continent. African CDI patient populations are often younger than in European and North American settings, probably due to the high prevalence of co-morbid conditions such as tuberculosis, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Strain typing data are rare and where reported generally limited to single sites and institutions. Despite challenges, including a lack of facilities and awareness, there is a need for further investigation to more accurately determine the true burden of disease caused by C. difficile in Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Kullin
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Valerie R Abratt
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Sharon J Reid
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Thomas V Riley
- Medical, Molecular and Forensic Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia WA, Australia; School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia; Department of Microbiology, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Nedlands, WA, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia.
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5
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Zhou Y, Zhou W, Xiao T, Chen Y, Lv T, Wang Y, Zhang S, Cai H, Chi X, Kong X, Zhou K, Shen P, Shan T, Xiao Y. Comparative genomic and transmission analysis of Clostridioides difficile between environmental, animal, and clinical sources in China. Emerg Microbes Infect 2021; 10:2244-2255. [PMID: 34756150 PMCID: PMC8648027 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2021.2005453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is the most common pathogen causing antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Previous studies showed that diverse sources, aside from C. difficile infection (CDI) patients, played a major role in C. difficile hospital transmission. This study aimed to investigate relationships and transmission potential of C. difficile strains from different sources. A prospective study was conducted both in the intensive care unit (ICU) and six livestock farms in China in 2018–2019. Ninety-eight strains from CDI patients (10 isolates), asymptomatic hospitalized carriers (55), the ICU environment (12), animals (14), soil (4), and farmers (3) were collected. Sequence type (ST) 3/ribotype (RT) 001, ST35/RT046, and ST48/RT596 were dominant types, distributed widely in multiple sources. Core-genome single-nucleotide polymorphism (cgSNP) analysis showed that hospital and farm strains shared several common clonal groups (CGs, strains separated by ≤ 2 cgSNPs) (CG4/ST3/RT001, CG7/ST35/RT046, CG11/ST48/RT596). CDI patients, asymptomatic carriers, and the ICU environment strains also shared several common CGs. The number of virulence genes was not statistically different between strains from different sources. Multi-source strains in the same CG carried identical virulence gene sequences, including pathogenicity genes at the pathogenicity locus and adhesion-related genes at S-layer cassette. Resistance genes (ermB, tetM, etc.) were widespread in multiple sources, and multi-source strains in the same CG had similar resistance phenotypes and carried consistent transposons and plasmid types. The study indicated that interspecies and cross-regional transmission of C. difficile occurs between animals, the environment, and humans. Community-associated strains from both farms and asymptomatic hospitalized carriers were important reservoirs of CDI in hospitals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanzi Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
| | - Wangxiao Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
| | - Tingting Xiao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
| | - Yunbo Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
| | - Tao Lv
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
| | - Yuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
| | - Shuntian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
| | - Hongliu Cai
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
| | - Xiaohui Chi
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
| | - Xiaoyang Kong
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
| | - Kai Zhou
- Shenzhen Institute of Respiratory Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital (Shenzhen People's Hospital), Southern University of Science and Technology, and Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, Shenzhen, China, 518000
| | - Ping Shen
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
| | - Tongling Shan
- Department of Swine Infectious Diseases, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Yonghong Xiao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China, 310003
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Taha AE. Raw Animal Meats as Potential Sources of Clostridium difficile in Al-Jouf, Saudi Arabia. Food Sci Anim Resour 2021; 41:883-893. [PMID: 34632406 PMCID: PMC8460330 DOI: 10.5851/kosfa.2021.e44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium difficile present in feces of food animals may
contaminate their meats and act as a potential source of C.
difficile infection (CDI) to humans. C. difficile
resistance to antibiotics, its production of toxins and spores play major roles
in the pathogenesis of CDI. This is the first study to evaluate C.
difficile prevalence in retail raw animal meats, its antibiotics
susceptibilities and toxigenic activities in Al-Jouf, Saudi Arabia. Totally, 240
meat samples were tested. C. difficile was identified by
standard microbiological and biochemical methods. Vitek-2 compact system
confirmed C. difficile isolates were 15/240 (6.3%).
Toxins A/B were not detected by Xpect C. difficile toxin A/B
tests. Although all isolates were susceptible to vancomycin and metronidazole,
variable degrees of reduced susceptibilities to moxifloxacin, clindamycin or
tetracycline antibiotics were detected by Epsilon tests. C.
difficile strains with reduced susceptibility to antibiotics should
be investigated. Variability between the worldwide reported C.
difficile contamination levels could be due to absence of a gold
standard procedure for its isolation. Establishment of a unified testing
algorithm for C. difficile detection in food products is
definitely essential to evaluate the inter-regional variation in its prevalence
on national and international levels. Proper use of antimicrobials during animal
husbandry is crucial to control the selective drug pressure on C.
difficile strains associated with food animals. Investigating the
protective or pathogenic potential of non-toxigenic C.
difficile strains and the possibility of gene transfer from certain
toxigenic/ antibiotics-resistant to non-toxigenic/antibiotics-sensitive strains,
respectively, should be worthy of attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed E Taha
- Microbiology and Immunology Unit, Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, Jouf University, Al-Jouf, Saudi Arabia.,Medical Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
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Frentrup M, Thiel N, Junker V, Behrens W, Münch S, Siller P, Kabelitz T, Faust M, Indra A, Baumgartner S, Schepanski K, Amon T, Roesler U, Funk R, Nübel U. Agricultural fertilization with poultry manure results in persistent environmental contamination with the pathogen Clostridioides difficile. Environ Microbiol 2021; 23:7591-7602. [PMID: 33998128 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.15601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
During a field experiment applying broiler manure for fertilization of agricultural land, we detected viable Clostridioides (also known as Clostridium) difficile in broiler faeces, manure, dust and fertilized soil. A large diversity of toxigenic C. difficile isolates was recovered, including PCR ribotypes common from human disease. Genomic relatedness of C. difficile isolates from dust and from soil, recovered more than 2 years after fertilization, traced their origins to the specific chicken farm that had delivered the manure. We present evidence of long-term contamination of agricultural soil with manure-derived C. difficile and demonstrate the potential for airborne dispersal of C. difficile through dust emissions during manure application. Clostridioides genome sequences virtually identical to those from manure had been recovered from chicken meat and from human infections in previous studies, suggesting broiler-associated C. difficile are capable of zoonotic transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martinique Frentrup
- Leibniz-Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Nadine Thiel
- Leibniz-Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Vera Junker
- Leibniz-Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Wiebke Behrens
- Leibniz-Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Steffen Münch
- Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Müncheberg, Germany
| | - Paul Siller
- Institute for Animal Hygiene and Environmental Health (ITU), Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tina Kabelitz
- Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), Potsdam, Germany
| | - Matthias Faust
- Leibniz-Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Leipzig, Germany
| | - Alexander Indra
- AGES-Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, Vienna, Austria.,Paracelsus Medical University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | | | | | - Thomas Amon
- Institute for Animal Hygiene and Environmental Health (ITU), Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), Potsdam, Germany
| | - Uwe Roesler
- Institute for Animal Hygiene and Environmental Health (ITU), Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Roger Funk
- Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Müncheberg, Germany
| | - Ulrich Nübel
- Leibniz-Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Braunschweig-Hannover, Braunschweig, Germany.,Braunschweig Integrated Center of Systems Biology (BRICS), Technical University, Braunschweig, Germany
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Comparison of Clostridioides difficile strains from animals and humans: First results after introduction of C. difficile molecular typing and characterization at the Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale of Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Italy. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2021; 75:101623. [PMID: 33607397 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2021.101623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
PCR ribotypes (RTs027 and 078) are known causes of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) in humans. Molecular typing and characterization of 39 C. difficile strains isolated from samples from humas and animals in 2016-2018 indicated an overlap of RTs between community-acquired patients (CA-CDI) and domestic animals from the same geographical area; 14 RTs were identified: 12 RTs were positive for toxins A/B; RT078, RT080 and RT126 were also positive for binary toxin (CDT). Most of the RTs from the animals (RTs020, 078, 106, 126) were also detected in the samples from humans. Strains grouped into three clusters: cluster I included prevalently human strains, mainly RT 018; clusters II and III included strains from humans and animals, mainly RT078 and RT020. The CA-CDI strains suggested animals as a reservoir of C. difficile isolated together with other microorganisms from animals, highlighting the association of enteric pathogens as a cause of infection and death.
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Heise J, Witt P, Maneck C, Wichmann-Schauer H, Maurischat S. Prevalence and phylogenetic relationship of Clostridioides difficile strains in fresh poultry meat samples processed in different cutting plants. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 339:109032. [PMID: 33388709 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.109032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is one of the most frequent causes of nosocomial infections in humans leading to (antibiotic-associated) diarrhea and severe pseudomembranous colitis. With an increasing frequency, C. difficile infections (CDI) are also observed independently of hospitalization and the age of the patients in an ambulant setting. One potential source of so-called community-acquired CDI is a zoonotic transmission to humans based on direct contact with animals or the consumption of food. To estimate the exposure of humans with C. difficile via food, we screened 364 different retail fresh poultry meat products purchased in Berlin and Brandenburg, Germany and further characterized the isolates. None of the 42 turkey or chicken meat samples without skin was contaminated. However, 51 (15.8%) of 322 tested fresh chicken meat samples with skin were C. difficile-positive. The vast majority (84.3%) of all isolates exhibited toxin genes tcdA and tcdB, whereas the binary toxin cdtA/B was absent. Most of the isolates (50/51) were susceptible to all six investigated antimicrobials. However, one non-toxigenic strain was multidrug resistant to the antimicrobials clindamycin and erythromycin. The isolates were mainly represented by PCR-ribotypes (RT) 001, RT002, RT005, and RT014, which were already associated with human CDI cases in Germany and were partially detected in poultry. The relatively high contamination rate of fresh retail chicken meat with skin purchased in Germany indicates chicken meat as a potential source of human infections. Moreover, we identified cutting plants with a higher rate of a C. difficile-contamination (21.4-32.8%). To compare the phylogenetic relationship of the isolated strains from certain cutting plants over several months in 2018 and 2019, we analyzed them using NGS followed by core genome MLST. Interestingly, highly related strains (0-3 alleles distance) of common clinical RT001 and RT002 isolates, as well as of the non-toxigenic RT205 isolates were detectable in same cutting plants over a period of three and 16 months, respectively.The continuous contamination with the same strain could be explained by the longterm persistence of this strain within the cutting plant (e.g., within the scalder), or with a recurring entry e.g. from the same fattening farm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine Heise
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Biological Safety, Unit Bacterial Toxins, Food Service, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Pascal Witt
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Biological Safety, Unit Bacterial Toxins, Food Service, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Corinna Maneck
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Biological Safety, Unit Bacterial Toxins, Food Service, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Heidi Wichmann-Schauer
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Biological Safety, Unit Bacterial Toxins, Food Service, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sven Maurischat
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Biological Safety, Unit Bacterial Toxins, Food Service, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
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