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Vejano MRA, dela Peña LBRO, Rivera WL. Source tracking of fecal contamination in Asian green mussels ( Perna viridis) harvested in Manila Bay, Philippines by molecular detection and genotyping of Cryptosporidium spp. J Parasit Dis 2024; 48:5-13. [PMID: 38440756 PMCID: PMC10908986 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-023-01634-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Manila Bay, a multipurpose body of water located around Metro Manila, Philippines, is progressively deteriorating because of massive pollution. Reports have shown that the bay and its aquatic resources (i.e., seafood) are contaminated with fecal matter and enteric pathogens, posing a threat to public health and industry. This problem raises the need for a microbial source tracking methodology as a part of the rehabilitation efforts in the bay. Bivalve mollusks cultivated in water can serve as sentinel species to detect fecal pollution and can complement water monitoring. With the use of polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequence analysis, this study detected Cryptosporidium spp. in Asian green mussels (Perna viridis) cultivated and harvested in Manila Bay and sold in Bulungan Seafood Market, Parañaque, Philippines, from 2019 to 2021 with an overall occurrence of 8.77% (n = 57). The analysis of the 18S rDNA segment revealed three genotypes from Cryptosporidium-positive samples, namely, Cryptosporidium sp. rat genotype IV (60%), C. galli (20%), and C. meleagridis (20%). These findings suggest fecal pollution in bivalve cultivation sites coming from sewage, nonpoint, and agricultural sources. The presence of C. meleagridis, the third most common cause of human cryptosporidiosis, in mussels poses a threat to human health. Thus, there is a need to establish routine detection and source tracking of Cryptosporidium spp. in Manila Bay and to educate seafood consumers on food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Raymond A. Vejano
- Pathogen-Host-Environment Interactions Research Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1101 Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Laurice Beatrice Raphaelle O. dela Peña
- Pathogen-Host-Environment Interactions Research Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1101 Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Windell L. Rivera
- Pathogen-Host-Environment Interactions Research Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1101 Quezon City, Philippines
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Srisuphanunt M, Wilairatana P, Kooltheat N, Damrongwatanapokin T, Karanis P. Occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in commercial oysters in southern Thailand. Food Waterborne Parasitol 2023; 32:e00205. [PMID: 37577105 PMCID: PMC10412772 DOI: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2023.e00205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 07/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The enteric parasite Cryptosporidium is spread through the fecal-oral pathway, most commonly by the consumption of contaminated water but also through food. Because eating raw or barely cooked shellfish might put consumers at risk for cryptosporidiosis, identifying the parasite in oysters is important for public health. A total of 240 oysters, collected from two shellfish aquaculture sites in Thailand's Gulf coast, Nakhon Si Thammarat and Surat Thani, were tested for the presence of Cryptosporidium. Escherichia coli, enterococci, and thermotolerant coliform total levels were measured to assess seawater quality in the shellfish production regions. Oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp. were detected in 13.8% of the samples processed by immunofluorescence analyses. The detection of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in oysters obtained from Surat Thani (17.5%) was higher than in those obtained from Nakhon Si Thammarat (9.2%). The difference in detection of positive samples obtained from Nakhon Si Thammarat and those obtained from Surat Thani may be attributed to the effects of physical, ecological, and anthropogenic conditions, resulting in an increased level of marine water contamination by Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts. These findings demonstrate that native commercial oysters obtained from Thailand's southern Gulf coast contained Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts which might serve as a source of human infection. Consequently, these findings pose a serious public health concern and suggest that more quality control measures need to be implemented by the oyster aquaculture business to ensure the safety of seafood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayuna Srisuphanunt
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
- Centre for One Health, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80161, Thailand
- Hematology and Transfusion Science Research Center, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Polrat Wilairatana
- Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Nateelak Kooltheat
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
- Hematology and Transfusion Science Research Center, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Thanis Damrongwatanapokin
- Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
- Centre for One Health, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80161, Thailand
| | - Panagiotis Karanis
- University of Nicosia Medical School, Department of Basic and Clinical Sciences, Egkomi 2408, Cyprus
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Merks H, Boone R, Janecko N, Viswanathan M, Dixon BR. Foodborne protozoan parasites in fresh mussels and oysters purchased at retail in Canada. Int J Food Microbiol 2023; 399:110248. [PMID: 37210953 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2023.110248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Studies worldwide have reported the presence of protozoan parasites in a variety of commercial bivalve shellfish. The uptake of these parasites by shellfish occurs during filter feeding in faecally-contaminated waters. The objective of the present study was to determine the prevalence of Giardia, Cryptosporidium and Toxoplasma in fresh, live shellfish purchased in three Canadian provinces as part of the retail surveillance activities led by FoodNet Canada (Public Health Agency of Canada). Packages containing mussels (n = 253) or oysters (n = 130) were purchased at grocery stores in FoodNet Canada sentinel sites on a biweekly basis throughout 2018 and 2019, and shipped in coolers to Health Canada for testing. A small number of packages were not tested due to insufficient quantity or poor quality. Following DNA extraction from homogenized, pooled tissues, nested PCR and DNA sequencing were used to detect parasite-specific sequences. Epifluorescence microscopy was used to confirm the presence of intact cysts and oocysts in sequence-confirmed PCR-positive samples. Giardia duodenalis DNA was present in 2.4 % of 247 packages of mussels and 4.0 % of 125 packages of oysters, while Cryptosporidium parvum DNA was present in 5.3 % of 247 packages of mussels and 7.2 % of 125 packages of oysters. Toxoplasma gondii DNA was only found in mussels in 2018 (1.6 % of 249 packages). Parasite DNA was detected in shellfish purchased in all three Canadian provinces sampled, and there was no apparent seasonal variation in prevalence. While the present study did not test for viability, parasites are known to survive for long periods in the marine environment, and these findings suggest that there is a risk of infection, especially when shellfish are consumed raw.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harriet Merks
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Ryan Boone
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Nicol Janecko
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom; Food-borne Disease and Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Division, Public Health Agency of Canada, 370 Speedvale Avenue West, Suite #201, Guelph, Ontario N1H 7M7, Canada
| | - Mythri Viswanathan
- Food-borne Disease and Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Division, Public Health Agency of Canada, 370 Speedvale Avenue West, Suite #201, Guelph, Ontario N1H 7M7, Canada
| | - Brent R Dixon
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0K9, Canada.
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Williams M, Hernandez-Jover M, Williams T, Shamsi S. A risk scoring system for seafood supply chain breaches and examination of freshwater fish imported to Australia. FOOD QUALITY AND SAFETY 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/fqsafe/fyab004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Legislative changes have altered the way imported edible seafood is inspected in Australia. Greater onus of responsibility has been placed on exporting countries to provide documentary evidence of adherence to internally recognized food safety standards. According to global trade agreements, any additional safety tests applied to freshwater fish imported into Australia must be justified. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop a risk scoring method to provide justification for identifying countries as ‘Freshwater fish high risk’ and to examine the seafood they export to Australia for seafood supply chain breaches. Scoring was conducted using six predictor variables, identified in the literature as important contributors to seafood supply chain breaches, to achieve the outcome variable, Country considered ‘Freshwater fish high risk’. Sixty-seven fish fillets (9.55 kg) of the same species were examined from the third highest scoring country (Country 20) and 562 (5.6 kg) whole fish from the sixth highest scoring country (Country 22). Country 20 had supply chain breaches of 28 macroscopic yellow cysts in one fillet. Two hundred and thirteen parasites and other supply chain breaches were identified in fish from Country 22, including retained liver (91 per cent), visible mud (11 per cent), a variety of debris (16 per cent) and, depending on the commodity code, these fish were imported to Australia under full intestine (90 per cent), retained gills (89 per cent), and partial intestine (9 per cent). Three serious physical hazards were recovered from the edible portion of three ‘consumer-ready’ fish and snails of Genus Lymnaea and Indoplanorbis were recovered from gill mud also from ‘consumer-ready’ fish. The study showed variable results from the scoring system and vast differences in seafood supply chain breaches between the third and sixth highest scoring countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Williams
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences & Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
| | - Marta Hernandez-Jover
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences & Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
| | - Thomas Williams
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences & Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
| | - Shokoofeh Shamsi
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences & Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
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Guillebault D, Medlin LK. Application of the μAqua microarray for pathogenic organisms across a marine/freshwater interface. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 92:101703. [PMID: 32113605 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2019.101703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 10/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring drinking water quality is an important public health issue and pathogenic organisms present a particularly serious health hazard in freshwater bodies. However, many pathogenic bacteria, including cyanobacteria, and pathogenic protozoa can be swept into coastal lagoons and into near-shore marine environments where they continue to grow and pose a health threat to marine mammals and invertebrates. In this study, we tested the suitability of a phylochip (microarray for species detection) developed for freshwater pathogenic organisms to be applied to samples taken across a marine/freshwater interface at monthly intervals for two years. Toxic cyanobacteria and pathogenic protozoa were more numerous in a coastal lagoon than at the freshwater or marine site, indicating that this microarray can be used to detect the presence of these pathogens across a marine/freshwater interface and thus the potential for toxicity to occur within the entire watershed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Guillebault
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biodiversité et Biotechnologies Microbiennes LBBM, F-66650, Banyuls sur Mer, France
| | - Linda K Medlin
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biodiversité et Biotechnologies Microbiennes LBBM, F-66650, Banyuls sur Mer, France.
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6
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Kaupke A, Osiński Z, Rzeżutka A. Comparison of Cryptosporidium oocyst recovery methods for their applicability for monitoring of consumer-ready fresh shellfish. Int J Food Microbiol 2019; 296:14-20. [PMID: 30826538 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Growing demand for fresh, unprocessed food favours the emergence of Cryptosporidium infections in humans. Mainly it is food of plant origin or unpasteurized milk which have been involved in food-borne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis. So far consumption of shellfish contaminated with Cryptosporidium were not associated with human infections although such as possibility exists. In this study an attempt was undertaken to evaluate the analytical performance of three commonly used methods for recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts from shellfish: i) pepsin digestion of shellfish in conjunction with immunomagnetic separation (IMS) of oocysts (method A), ii) pepsin-HCl treatment of shellfish homogenate without IMS (method B), and iii) a strainer method with direct oocyst extraction and separation from shellfish tissue using IMS (method C). Each method's performance was assessed according to the ISO standard requirements by testing shellfish homogenates seeded with different numbers of C. parvum oocysts. Two groups of parameters were compared, encompassing precision (coefficient of variation (CV)) and accuracy of measurements. These were described by linear regression models allowing calculation of the methods' limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ). In addition, oocyst recovery efficiencies from shellfish were calculated for each method. All three compared methods allowed for at least 66% recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts from the tested samples. The best recovery (83.3-100%) in the whole range of tested suspensions was obtained for method C. The accuracy of method B was better (linearity of r2 = 0.9996 in the full measurement range) than that of method A (r2 = 0.968). Method C showed the best accuracy (r2 = 1) and precision (CV 0.2-14.1). Compared to other methods it was also characterised by the best LOD and LOQ, attaining ≅4 and ≅12 oocysts per 3 g of tested shellfish sample respectively. Despite a lack of the ability of method A to give the proportional results in oocysts recovery (non-linearity of the method) compared to the reference values, it achieved the highest LOD and LOQ values among the tested methods. As demonstrated here, the most efficient method for extraction of Cryptosporidium oocysts from shellfish tissues was method C employing sample homogenisation and separation of oocysts from tissue debris using IMS. Used alone this method does not in fact allow for identification of Cryptosporidium species but delivers quantitative results concerning the level of food contamination by parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Kaupke
- Department of Food and Environmental Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
| | - Zbigniew Osiński
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feedingstuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
| | - Artur Rzeżutka
- Department of Food and Environmental Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland.
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7
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Manore AJW, Harper SL, Aguilar B, Weese JS, Shapiro K. Comparison of freeze-thaw cycles for nucleic acid extraction and molecular detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in environmental matrices. J Microbiol Methods 2018; 156:1-4. [PMID: 30468750 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2018.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Freeze-thaw DNA extraction methods and PCR primers were compared to optimize detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in different matrices. Increasing FT cycles did not increase parasite DNA detection, and primers targeting the 18S ssrRNA gene yielded the most sensitive detection of C. parvum oocysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna J W Manore
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Sherilee L Harper
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Beatriz Aguilar
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology & Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, One Shields Ave, 4206 VM3A, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-5270, USA
| | - J S Weese
- Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Karen Shapiro
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; Department of Pathology, Microbiology & Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, One Shields Ave, 4206 VM3A, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-5270, USA.
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Leal DAG, Souza DSM, Caumo KS, Fongaro G, Panatieri LF, Durigan M, Rott MB, Barardi CRM, Franco RMB. Genotypic characterization and assessment of infectivity of human waterborne pathogens recovered from oysters and estuarine waters in Brazil. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 137:273-280. [PMID: 29550730 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Waterborne, food-borne and sewage-borne pathogens are a major global concern, with the annual recurrence, most notably during the summer, of outbreaks of gastroenteritis of unconfirmed etiology associated with recreational activities in marine environments. The consumption of contaminated water-based foodstuffs is also related to outbreaks of human illness. The main goals of the present study were: i) to identify the genetic assemblages of Giardia duodenalis cysts in growing and depurated oysters destined for human consumption on the southern coast of São Paulo, Brazil; ii) to verify the main circulating G. duodenalis assemblages and their subtypes in different brackish waters used for the production of mollusks and for recreational purposes; iii) to track the contamination of growing and depurated oysters by the human adenovirus and identify the infectivity of adenoviral particles recovered from oysters before and after depuration; iv) to evaluate the occurrence and genotype of the free-living amoebae of the genus Acanthamoeba in brackish water and oysters from all the sites described above. Four sampling sites in the Cananeia estuary were selected to search for pathogenic and amphizoic protozoa (Giardia and Acanthamoeba respectively): site 1: oyster growth, site 2: catchment water (before UV depuration procedure), site 3: filter backwash (filtration stage of water treatment) and site 4: oyster depuration tank. Oysters at sites 1 and 4 were evaluated for the presence of adenovirus (HAdV). Analysis consisted of conventional microbiological as well as molecular methods. Giardia duodenalis were detected in all the water sites analyzed and the molecular analysis revealed that sub-assemblage AII was the most frequently distributed throughout the estuarine environment, although one sample was identified as belonging to the assemblage C. Acanthamoeba were also isolated from different locations of the estuarine area, and were detected at all the analyzed sites. The majority of isolates belonged to the T3 genotype, while the T4 genotype was identified once. The sequencing reaction of Giardia duodenalis revealed the contamination of three batches of depurated oysters by the sub-assemblage AII. With respect to viruses, seven batches of oysters (four growing and three depurated) were found to be harboring infectious HAdV particles when submitted to plaque assay. Overall, the results of the sequencing reactions combined with the plaque assay revealed that the isolates of Giardia duodenalis and the infectious HAdV particles identified in oyster tissues have the potential to infect humans and pose a threat if consumed raw or lightly cooked. This is the first report on the sub-assemblage AII identified in oysters which are submitted to a cleaning and disinfection procedure prior to human consumption in Brazil. Acanthamoeba specific genotypes were also identified for the first time in a recreational estuarine area in Brazil, contributing to knowledge of their molecular and environmental epidemiology, which is considered scarce even in marine and estuarine areas of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Averaldo Guiguet Leal
- Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Setor de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Patologia Básica, Laboratório de Parasitologia Ambiental, Curitiba, Paraná PO Box: 19031, CEP: 81531-980, Brazil.
| | - Doris Sobral Marques Souza
- Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina CEP: 88040-970, Brazil
| | - Karin Silva Caumo
- Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Laboratório de Estudos de Protozoários Emergentes, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina CEP: 88040-970, Brazil; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul CEP: 900035-190, Brazil
| | - Gislaine Fongaro
- Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina CEP: 88040-970, Brazil
| | - Lua Ferreira Panatieri
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul CEP: 900035-190, Brazil
| | | | - Marilise Brittes Rott
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul CEP: 900035-190, Brazil
| | - Célia Regina Monte Barardi
- Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina CEP: 88040-970, Brazil
| | - Regina Maura Bueno Franco
- Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Laboratório de Protozoologia, Campinas, São Paulo CEP 13083-970, Brazil
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First report of Toxoplasma gondii sporulated oocysts and Giardia duodenalis in commercial green-lipped mussels (Perna canaliculus) in New Zealand. Parasitol Res 2018; 117:1453-1463. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-018-5832-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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10
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An overview of methods/techniques for the detection of Cryptosporidium in food samples. Parasitol Res 2018; 117:629-653. [PMID: 29350281 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-017-5735-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium is one of the most important parasitic protozoa of concern within the food production industry, worldwide. This review describes the evolution and its development, and it monitors the methodology that has been used for Cryptosporidium in food material since 1984, when the first publication appeared regarding the detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in food materials. The methods that are currently being used for the detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in food material (mainly vegetables) and all of the other available published methods are discussed in this review. Generating more consistent and reliable data should lead to a better understanding of the occurrence, transport and fate of the oocysts in food material. Improvements in monitoring and developing effective methodology, along with food security, offer more practical possibilities for both the developed and developing worlds.
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Burge CA, Closek CJ, Friedman CS, Groner ML, Jenkins CM, Shore-Maggio A, Welsh JE. The Use of Filter-feeders to Manage Disease in a Changing World. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:573-87. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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California mussels (Mytilus californianus) as sentinels for marine contamination with Sarcocystis neurona. Parasitology 2016; 143:762-9. [PMID: 27003262 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182016000354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Sarcocystis neurona is a terrestrial parasite that can cause fatal encephalitis in the endangered Southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis). To date, neither risk factors associated with marine contamination nor the route of S. neurona infection to marine mammals has been described. This study evaluated coastal S. neurona contamination using California mussels (Mytilus californianus) as sentinels for pathogen pollution. A field investigation was designed to test the hypotheses that (1) mussels can serve as sentinels for S. neurona contamination, and (2) S. neurona contamination in mussels would be highest during the rainy season and in mussels collected near freshwater. Initial validation of molecular assays through sporocyst spiking experiments revealed the ITS-1500 assay to be most sensitive for detection of S. neurona, consistently yielding parasite amplification at concentrations ⩾5 sporocysts/1 mL mussel haemolymph. Assays were then applied on 959 wild-caught mussels, with detection of S. neurona confirmed using sequence analysis in three mussels. Validated molecular assays for S. neurona detection in mussels provide a novel toolset for investigating marine contamination with this parasite, while confirmation of S. neurona in wild mussels suggests that uptake by invertebrates may serve as a route of transmission to susceptible marine animals.
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Mariné Oliveira GF, do Couto MCM, de Freitas Lima M, do Bomfim TCB. Mussels (Perna perna) as bioindicator of environmental contamination by Cryptosporidium species with zoonotic potential. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2016; 5:28-33. [PMID: 26977402 PMCID: PMC4781961 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2016.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Sources of contamination such as animal feces runoff, organic fertilizer application, and the release of partially treated or untreated sewage can lead to the contamination of aquatic environments by Cryptosporidium spp. The quality of mussels as food is closely related to the sanitary conditions of the marine environment where these bivalves are found. Marine mollusks are filter feeders that are able to retain Cryptosporidium oocysts in their tissue, thus functioning as bioindicators. A total of 72 pooled mussel samples of the species Perna perna were collected at two sites (A and B) in the municipality of Mangaratiba, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Sampling involved removal of 30 mussels, from each collection site every month for one year. The 30 mussels from each sampling were then allocated into three groups of 10. Two Cryptosporidium spp. genes (18S and GP60) were targeted for DNA amplification from the samples obtained. After purification, all of the products obtained were sequenced and phylogenetic analyses were performed. Of the 72 samples analyzed using the nested-PCR for the 18S gene target, 29.2% were positive for the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. Of these samples, 52.4% were collected at site A (ie 11/21) and 47.6% at site B (ie 10/21). The 18S genes of all the samples considered positive for Cryptosporidium spp. were sequenced, and the following three species were identified: Cryptosporidium parvum, C. meleagridis, and C. andersoni. Three distinct C. parvum subtypes (IIaA19G2R2; IIaA20G2R2; IIaA20G3R2) were identified using the GP60 gene. More studies to evaluate the zoonotic potential of this species should be performed as both sampling locations contain human and/or animal fecal contaminants. Different species of Cryptosporidium diagnosed in Perna perna mussels. C. parvum subtypes of IIa zoonotic subfamily diagnosed in P. perna mussels. First report of the zoonotic species C. meleagridis in Brazilian mollusk bivalves. Mollusks bivalves used as bioindicator of environmental pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marcelo de Freitas Lima
- Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro - Chemistry Department, Institute of Exact Sciences, Brazil
| | - Teresa Cristina Bergamo do Bomfim
- Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Veterinary Institute, Department of Animal Parasitology, BR 465, Km 07, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro 23.890-000 Brazil
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Shapiro K, VanWormer E, Aguilar B, Conrad PA. Surveillance forToxoplasma gondiiin California mussels (Mytilus californianus) reveals transmission of atypical genotypes from land to sea. Environ Microbiol 2014; 17:4177-88. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karen Shapiro
- One Health Institute; School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis CA USA
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology; School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis CA USA
| | - Elizabeth VanWormer
- One Health Institute; School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis CA USA
| | - Beatriz Aguilar
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology; School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis CA USA
| | - Patricia A. Conrad
- One Health Institute; School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis CA USA
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology; School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis CA USA
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15
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Molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in mussels (Mytilus californianus) and California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) from Central California. Appl Environ Microbiol 2014; 80:7732-40. [PMID: 25281384 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02922-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium and Giardia are of public health importance, with recognized transmission through recreational waters. Therefore, both can contaminate marine waters and shellfish, with potential to infect marine mammals in nearshore ecosystems. A 2-year study was conducted to evaluate the presence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in mussels located at two distinct coastal areas in California, namely, (i) land runoff plume sites and (ii) locations near sea lion haul-out sites, as well as in feces of California sea lions (CSL) (Zalophus californianus) by the use of direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) detection methods and PCR with sequence analysis. In this study, 961 individual mussel hemolymph samples, 54 aliquots of pooled mussel tissue, and 303 CSL fecal samples were screened. Giardia duodenalis assemblages B and D were detected in hemolymph from mussels collected near two land runoff plume sites (Santa Rosa Creek and Carmel River), and assemblages C and D were detected in hemolymph from mussels collected near a sea lion haul-out site (White Rock). These results suggest that mussels are being contaminated by protozoa carried in terrestrial runoff and/or shed in the feces of CSL. Furthermore, low numbers of oocysts and cysts morphologically similar to Cryptosporidium and Giardia, respectively, were detected in CSL fecal samples, suggesting that CSL could be a source and a host of protozoan parasites in coastal environments. The results of this study showed that Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. from the feces of terrestrial animals and CSL can contaminate mussels and coastal environments.
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Willis JE, McClure J, McClure C, Spears J, Davidson J, Greenwood SJ. Bioaccumulation and elimination of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in experimentally exposed Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) held in static tank aquaria. Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 173:72-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Revised: 11/16/2013] [Accepted: 11/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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17
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Cryptosporidium parvum genotype IIa and Giardia duodenalis assemblage A in Mytilus galloprovincialis on sale at local food markets. Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 171:62-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2013] [Revised: 10/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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18
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Proactive systems for early warning of potential impacts of natural disasters on food safety: Climate-change-induced extreme events as case in point. Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.04.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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19
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20
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Global occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in shellfish: Should Canada take a closer look? Food Res Int 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2013.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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21
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Oates SC, Miller MA, Hardin D, Conrad PA, Melli A, Jessup DA, Dominik C, Roug A, Tinker MT, Miller WA. Prevalence, environmental loading, and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium and Giardia isolates from domestic and wild animals along the Central California Coast. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012; 78:8762-72. [PMID: 23042185 PMCID: PMC3502930 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02422-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2012] [Accepted: 10/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The risk of disease transmission from waterborne protozoa is often dependent on the origin (e.g., domestic animals versus wildlife), overall parasite load in contaminated waterways, and parasite genotype, with infections being linked to runoff or direct deposition of domestic animal and wildlife feces. Fecal samples collected from domestic animals and wildlife along the central California coast were screened to (i) compare the prevalence and associated risk factors for fecal shedding of Cryptosporidium and Giardia species parasites, (ii) evaluate the relative importance of animal host groups that contribute to pathogen loading in coastal ecosystems, and (iii) characterize zoonotic and host-specific genotypes. Overall, 6% of fecal samples tested during 2007 to 2010 were positive for Cryptosporidium oocysts and 15% were positive for Giardia cysts. Animal host group and age class were significantly associated with detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia parasites in animal feces. Fecal loading analysis revealed that infected beef cattle potentially contribute the greatest parasite load relative to other host groups, followed by wild canids. Beef cattle, however, shed host-specific, minimally zoonotic Cryptosporidium and Giardia duodenalis genotypes, whereas wild canids shed potentially zoonotic genotypes, including G. duodenalis assemblages A and B. Given that the parasite genotypes detected in cattle were not zoonotic, the public health risk posed by protozoan parasite shedding in cattle feces may be lower than that posed by other animals, such as wild canids, that routinely shed zoonotic genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stori C. Oates
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
- Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, Department of Fish and Game, Santa Cruz, California, USA
| | - Melissa A. Miller
- Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, Department of Fish and Game, Santa Cruz, California, USA
| | - Dane Hardin
- Applied Marine Sciences, Santa Cruz, California, USA
| | - Patricia A. Conrad
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Ann Melli
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - David A. Jessup
- Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, Department of Fish and Game, Santa Cruz, California, USA
| | - Clare Dominik
- Applied Marine Sciences, Santa Cruz, California, USA
| | - Annette Roug
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - M. Tim Tinker
- U.S. Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center, Long Marine Laboratory, Santa Cruz, California, USA
| | - Woutrina A. Miller
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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Effect of estuarine wetland degradation on transport of Toxoplasma gondii surrogates from land to sea. Appl Environ Microbiol 2010; 76:6821-8. [PMID: 20802072 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01435-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The flux of terrestrially derived pathogens to coastal waters presents a significant health risk to marine wildlife, as well as to humans who utilize the nearshore for recreation and seafood harvest. Anthropogenic changes in natural habitats may result in increased transmission of zoonotic pathogens to coastal waters. The objective of our work was to evaluate how human-caused alterations of coastal landscapes in California affect the transport of Toxoplasma gondii to estuarine waters. Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that is excreted in the feces of infected felids and is thought to reach coastal waters in contaminated runoff. This zoonotic pathogen causes waterborne toxoplasmosis in humans and is a significant cause of death in threatened California sea otters. Surrogate particles that mimic the behavior of T. gondii oocysts in water were released in transport studies to evaluate if the loss of estuarine wetlands is contributing to an increased flux of oocysts into coastal waters. Compared to vegetated sites, more surrogates were recovered from unvegetated mudflat habitats, which represent degraded wetlands. Specifically, in Elkhorn Slough, where a large proportion of otters are infected with T. gondii, erosion of 36% of vegetated wetlands to mudflats may increase the flux of oocysts by more than 2 orders of magnitude. Total degradation of wetlands may result in increased Toxoplasma transport of 6 orders of magnitude or more. Destruction of wetland habitats along central coastal California may thus facilitate pathogen pollution in coastal waters with detrimental health impacts to wildlife and humans.
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23
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Presence of Bacteroidales as a predictor of pathogens in surface waters of the central California coast. Appl Environ Microbiol 2010; 76:5802-14. [PMID: 20639358 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00635-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The value of Bacteroidales genetic markers and fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) to predict the occurrence of waterborne pathogens was evaluated in ambient waters along the central California coast. Bacteroidales host-specific quantitative PCR (qPCR) was used to quantify fecal bacteria in water and provide insights into contributing host fecal sources. Over 140 surface water samples from 10 major rivers and estuaries within the Monterey Bay region were tested over 14 months with four Bacteroidales-specific assays (universal, human, dog, and cow), three FIB (total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and enterococci), two protozoal pathogens (Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp.), and four bacterial pathogens (Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., and Vibrio spp.). Indicator and pathogen distribution was widespread, and detection was not highly seasonal. Vibrio cholerae was detected most frequently, followed by Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Salmonella, and Campylobacter spp. Bayesian conditional probability analysis was used to characterize the Bacteroidales performance assays, and the ratios of concentrations determined using host-specific and universal assays were used to show that fecal contamination from human sources was more common than livestock or dog sources in coastal study sites. Correlations were seen between some, but not all, indicator-pathogen combinations. The ability to predict pathogen occurrence in relation to indicator threshold cutoff levels was evaluated using a weighted measure that showed the universal Bacteroidales genetic marker to have a comparable or higher mean predictive potential than standard FIB. This predictive ability, in addition to the Bacteroidales assays providing information on contributing host fecal sources, supports using Bacteroidales assays in water quality monitoring programs.
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24
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Putignani L, Menichella D. Global distribution, public health and clinical impact of the protozoan pathogen cryptosporidium. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis 2010; 2010:753512. [PMID: 20706669 PMCID: PMC2913630 DOI: 10.1155/2010/753512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2009] [Revised: 01/07/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium spp. are coccidians, oocysts-forming apicomplexan protozoa, which complete their life cycle both in humans and animals, through zoonotic and anthroponotic transmission, causing cryptosporidiosis. The global burden of this disease is still underascertained, due to a conundrum transmission modality, only partially unveiled, and on a plethora of detection systems still inadequate or only partially applied for worldwide surveillance. In children, cryptosporidiosis encumber is even less recorded and often misidentified due to physiological reasons such as early-age unpaired immunological response. Furthermore, malnutrition in underdeveloped countries or clinical underestimation of protozoan etiology in developed countries contribute to the underestimation of the worldwide burden. Principal key indicators of the parasite distribution were associated to environmental (e.g., geographic and temporal clusters, etc.) and host determinants of the infection (e.g., age, immunological status, travels, community behaviours). The distribution was geographically mapped to provide an updated picture of the global parasite ecosystems. The present paper aims to provide, by a critical analysis of existing literature, a link between observational epidemiological records and new insights on public health, and diagnostic and clinical impact of cryptosporidiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenza Putignani
- Microbiology Unit, Bambino Gesù Pediatric Hospital, Scientific Institute, Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy
| | - Donato Menichella
- Microbiology Unit, Bambino Gesù Pediatric Hospital, Scientific Institute, Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy
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25
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Miller MA, Conrad PA, Harris M, Hatfield B, Langlois G, Jessup DA, Magargal SL, Packham AE, Toy-Choutka S, Melli AC, Murray MA, Gulland FM, Grigg ME. A protozoal-associated epizootic impacting marine wildlife: mass-mortality of southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) due to Sarcocystis neurona infection. Vet Parasitol 2010; 172:183-94. [PMID: 20615616 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2009] [Revised: 05/20/2010] [Accepted: 05/21/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
During April 2004, 40 sick and dead southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) were recovered over 18km of coastline near Morro Bay, California. This event represented the single largest monthly spike in mortality ever recorded during 30 years of southern sea otter stranding data collection. Because of the point-source nature of the event and clinical signs consistent with severe, acute neurological disease, exposure to a chemical or marine toxin was initially considered. However, detailed postmortem examinations revealed lesions consistent with an infectious etiology, and further investigation confirmed the protozoan parasite Sarcocystis neurona as the underlying cause. Tissues from 94% of examined otters were PCR-positive for S. neurona, based on DNA amplification and sequencing at the ITS-1 locus, and 100% of tested animals (n=14) had elevated IgM and IgG titers to S. neurona. Evidence to support the point-source character of this event include the striking spatial and temporal clustering of cases and detection of high concentrations of anti-S. neurona IgM in serum of stranded animals. Concurrent exposure to the marine biotoxin domoic acid may have enhanced susceptibility of affected otters to S. neurona and exacerbated the neurological signs exhibited by stranded animals. Other factors that may have contributed to the severity of this epizootic include a large rainstorm that preceded the event and an abundance of razor clams near local beaches, attracting numerous otters close to shore within the affected area. This is the first report of a localized epizootic in marine wildlife caused by apicomplexan protozoa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A Miller
- Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA.
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26
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Miller MA, Byrne BA, Jang SS, Dodd EM, Dorfmeier E, Harris MD, Ames J, Paradies D, Worcester K, Jessup DA, Miller WA. Enteric bacterial pathogen detection in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) is associated with coastal urbanization and freshwater runoff. Vet Res 2010; 41:1. [PMID: 19720009 PMCID: PMC2769548 DOI: 10.1051/vetres/2009049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2008] [Accepted: 08/31/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Although protected for nearly a century, California's sea otters have been slow to recover, in part due to exposure to fecally-associated protozoal pathogens like Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis neurona. However, potential impacts from exposure to fecal bacteria have not been systematically explored. Using selective media, we examined feces from live and dead sea otters from California for specific enteric bacterial pathogens (Campylobacter, Salmonella, Clostridium perfringens, C. difficile and Escherichia coli O157:H7), and pathogens endemic to the marine environment (Vibrio cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus and Plesiomonas shigelloides). We evaluated statistical associations between detection of these pathogens in otter feces and demographic or environmental risk factors for otter exposure, and found that dead otters were more likely to test positive for C. perfringens, Campylobacter and V. parahaemolyticus than were live otters. Otters from more urbanized coastlines and areas with high freshwater runoff (near outflows of rivers or streams) were more likely to test positive for one or more of these bacterial pathogens. Other risk factors for bacterial detection in otters included male gender and fecal samples collected during the rainy season when surface runoff is maximal. Similar risk factors were reported in prior studies of pathogen exposure for California otters and their invertebrate prey, suggesting that land-sea transfer and/or facilitation of pathogen survival in degraded coastal marine habitat may be impacting sea otter recovery. Because otters and humans share many of the same foods, our findings may also have implications for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A Miller
- California Department of Fish and Game, Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA.
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27
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Smith HV, Nichols RAB. Cryptosporidium: detection in water and food. Exp Parasitol 2009; 124:61-79. [PMID: 19501088 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2009.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2009] [Revised: 03/24/2009] [Accepted: 05/26/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Water and food are major environmental transmission routes for Cryptosporidium, but our ability to identify the spectrum of oocyst contributions in current performance-based methods is limited. Determining risks in water and foodstuffs, and the importance of zoonotic transmission, requires the use of molecular methods, which add value to performance-based morphologic methods. Multi-locus approaches increase the accuracy of identification, as many signatures detected in water originate from species/genotypes that are not infectious to humans. Method optimisation is necessary for detecting small numbers of oocysts in environmental samples consistently, and further work is required to (i) optimise IMS recovery efficiency, (ii) quality assure performance-based methods, (iii) maximise DNA extraction and purification, (iv) adopt standardised and validated loci and primers, (v) determine the species and subspecies range in samples containing mixtures, and standardising storage and transport matrices for validating genetic loci, primer sets and DNA sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huw V Smith
- Scottish Parasite Diagnostic Laboratory, Stobhill Hospital, Glasgow G21 3UW, Scotland, UK.
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28
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Spitsbergen JM, Blazer VS, Bowser PR, Cheng KC, Cooper KR, Cooper TK, Frasca S, Groman DB, Harper CM, Law JMM, Marty GD, Smolowitz RM, St Leger J, Wolf DC, Wolf JC. Finfish and aquatic invertebrate pathology resources for now and the future. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2009; 149:249-57. [PMID: 18948226 PMCID: PMC2680143 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2008.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2008] [Revised: 09/30/2008] [Accepted: 10/01/2008] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Utilization of finfish and aquatic invertebrates in biomedical research and as environmental sentinels has grown dramatically in recent decades. Likewise the aquaculture of finfish and invertebrates has expanded rapidly worldwide as populations of some aquatic food species and threatened or endangered aquatic species have plummeted due to overharvesting or habitat degradation. This increasing intensive culture and use of aquatic species has heightened the importance of maintaining a sophisticated understanding of pathology of various organ systems of these diverse species. Yet, except for selected species long cultivated in aquaculture, pathology databases and the workforce of highly trained pathologists lag behind those available for most laboratory animals and domestic mammalian and avian species. Several factors must change to maximize the use, understanding, and protection of important aquatic species: 1) improvements in databases of abnormalities across species; 2) standardization of diagnostic criteria for proliferative and nonproliferative lesions; and 3) more uniform and rigorous training in aquatic morphologic pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan M Spitsbergen
- Center for Fish Disease Research, 220 Nash Hall, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
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29
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Stoddard RA, Atwill ER, Gulland FMD, Miller MA, Dabritz HA, Paradies DM, Worcester KR, Jang S, Lawrence J, Byrne BA, Conrad PA. Risk factors for infection with pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant fecal bacteria in northern elephant seals in California. Public Health Rep 2008; 123:360-70. [PMID: 19006978 PMCID: PMC2289989 DOI: 10.1177/003335490812300316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The goal of this study was to identify potential environmental and demographic factors associated with Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni), Salmonella enterica (Salmonella spp.), and antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli (E. coli) infection in northern elephant seals stranded along the California coastline. METHODS E. coli, Salmonella spp., and C. jejuni were isolated from rectal swabs from 196 juvenile northern elephant seals, which were found stranded and alive along the California coast and brought to The Marine Mammal Center in Sausalito, California, for rehabilitation. Gender, weight, county where the animal stranded, month stranded, coastal human population density, exposure to sewage outfall or freshwater outflow (river or stream), and cumulative precipitation in the previous 24 hours, seven days, 30 days, 90 days, and 180 days were analyzed as potential risk factors for infection. RESULTS The odds of C. jejuni and antimicrobial-resistant E. coli were higher in feces of seals stranded at sites with higher levels of freshwater outflow compared with lower levels of freshwater outflow. The odds of Salmonella spp. in feces were 5.4 times greater in seals stranded in locations with lower levels of 30-day cumulative precipitation, along with substantially lower odds of Salmonella shedding for seals stranded in Monterey or Santa Cruz county compared with seals stranded in regions further north or south of this central California location. CONCLUSIONS Juvenile northern elephant seals that have entered the water are being colonized by antimicrobial-resistant and pathogenic fecal bacteria that may be acquired from terrestrial sources transmitted via river and surface waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn A Stoddard
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
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30
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Robertson LJ, Gjerde B. Development and use of a pepsin digestion method for analysis of shellfish for Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. J Food Prot 2008; 71:959-66. [PMID: 18522030 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-71.5.959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Investigation of shellfish for Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts is of public health interest because shellfish may concentrate these pathogens in their bodies, and because shellfish are frequently eaten raw or lightly cooked. To date, the methods used for the analysis of shellfish for these parasites are based on those originally designed for water concentrates or fecal samples; the reported recovery efficiencies are frequently relatively low and the amount of sample examined is small. Here, we describe the development and use of a pepsin digestion method for analyzing shellfish samples for these parasites. The conditions of the isolation method did not affect subsequent parasite detection by immunofluorescent antibody test, and allowed examination of 3-g samples of shellfish homogenate, with recovery efficiencies from blue mussel homogenates of between 70 and 80%, and similar recoveries from horse mussel and oyster homogenates. Although exposure of the parasites to the conditions used in the technique affected their viability, as assessed by vital dyes, the maximum reduction in viability after 1-h incubation in digestion solution was 20%. In a preliminary survey of shellfish collected from the Norwegian coast, Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in blue mussel homogenates in 6 (43%) of 14 batches and Giardia cysts in 7 (50%) of these batches. However, this relatively high occurrence, compared with other surveys, may be due to the higher recovery efficiency of the new method, and the relatively large sample size analyzed. A more comprehensive study of the occurrence of these parasites in shellfish would be of pertinence to the Norwegian shellfish industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Robertson
- Parasitology Laboratory, Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, 0033 Oslo, Norway.
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31
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Jessup DA, Miller MA, Kreuder-Johnson C, Conrad PA, Tinker MT, Estes J, Mazet JAK. Sea otters in a dirty ocean. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2007; 231:1648-52. [DOI: 10.2460/javma.231.11.1648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Leoni F, Gómez-Couso H, Ares-Mazás M, McLauchlin J. Multilocus genetic analysis of Cryptosporidium in naturally contaminated bivalve molluscs. J Appl Microbiol 2007; 103:2430-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03508.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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The potential for marine bivalve shellfish to act as transmission vehicles for outbreaks of protozoan infections in humans: a review. Int J Food Microbiol 2007; 120:201-16. [PMID: 17928081 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2007] [Revised: 05/03/2007] [Accepted: 07/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Most marine molluscan bivalve shellfish feed on suspended phytoplankton which are trapped from water pumped across the gills by ciliary action. Pathogenic microorganisms in the water may be filtered by the gills during feeding, and become concentrated in the digestive glands/tract. If these pathogens are not excreted or inactivated by the shellfish, or in subsequent preparatory processes, they may be ingested by consumers, the shellfish thereby acting as vehicles of infection. The protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis and Toxoplasma gondii have the potential to be transmitted in this way, and here we review the accumulating knowledge on the occurrence and survival of the transmission stages of these parasites in shellfish, whilst also emphasising the considerable gaps in our knowledge. Relevant information is particularly lacking for T. gondii, which, in comparison with Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis, has been relatively under-researched in this context. Although it seems evident that these shellfish can accumulate and concentrate all three of these parasites from the surrounding water, whether Giardia cysts remain viable and infectious is unknown, and some evidence suggests that they may be inactivated by the shellfish. Although both Toxoplasma and Cryptosporidium apparently retain their infectivity for prolonged periods in shellfish, the actual public health threat posed by these parasites via these shellfish is unclear, largely because there is minimal evidence of infection transmission. Reasons for this apparent lack of infection transmission are discussed and it is recommended that the potential for transmission via shellfish consumption is recognised by those concerned with investigating transmission of these infections.
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Gaydos JK, Miller WA, Gilardi KVK, Melli A, Schwantje H, Engelstoft C, Fritz H, Conrad PA. Cryptosporidium and Giardia in marine-foraging river otters (Lontra canadensis) from the Puget Sound Georgia Basin ecosystem. J Parasitol 2007; 93:198-202. [PMID: 17436965 DOI: 10.1645/ge-928r.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Species of Cryptosporidium and Giardia can infect humans and wildlife and have the potential to be transmitted between these 2 groups; yet, very little is known about these protozoans in marine wildlife. Feces of river otters (Lontra canadensis), a common marine wildlife species in the Puget Sound Georgia Basin, were examined for species of Cryptosporidium and Giardia to determine their role in the epidemiology of these pathogens. Using ZnSO4 flotation and immunomagnetic separation, followed by direct immunofluorescent antibody detection (IMS/DFA), we identified Cryptosporidium sp. oocysts in 9 fecal samples from 6 locations and Giardia sp. cysts in 11 fecal samples from 7 locations. The putative risk factors of proximate human population and degree of anthropogenic shoreline modification were not associated with the detection of Cryptosporidium or Giardia spp. in river otter feces. Amplification of DNA from the IMS/DFA slide scrapings was successful for 1 sample containing > 500 Cryptosporidium sp. oocysts. Sequences from the Cryptosporidium 18S rRNA and the COWP loci were most similar to the ferret Cryptosporidium sp. genotype. River otters could serve as reservoirs for Cryptosporidium and Giardia species in marine ecosystems. More work is needed to better understand the zoonotic potential of the genotypes they carry as well as their implications for river otter health.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Gaydos
- Orcas Island Office, University of California-Davis Wildlife Health Center, 1016 Deer Harbor Road, Eastsound, Washington 98245, USA.
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Schets FM, van den Berg HHJL, Engels GB, Lodder WJ, de Roda Husman AM. Cryptosporidium and Giardia in commercial and non-commercial oysters (Crassostrea gigas) and water from the Oosterschelde, the Netherlands. Int J Food Microbiol 2007; 113:189-94. [PMID: 16973232 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2005] [Revised: 02/16/2006] [Accepted: 06/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The intestinal parasites Cryptosporidium and Giardia cause gastro-enteritis in humans and can be transmitted via contaminated water. Oysters are filter feeders that have been demonstrated to accumulate pathogens such as Salmonella, Vibrio, norovirus and Cryptosporidium from contaminated water and cause foodborne infections. Oysters are economically important shellfish that are generally consumed raw. Commercial and non-commercial oysters (Crassostrea gigas) and oyster culture water from the Oosterschelde, The Netherlands, were examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. Nine of 133 (6.7%) oysters from two non-commercial harvesting sites contained Cryptosporidium, Giardia or both. Six of 46 (13.0%) commercial oysters harboured Cryptosporidium or Giardia in their intestines. Data on the viability of (oo)cysts recovered from Oosterschelde oysters were not obtained, however viable (oo)cysts were detected in surface waters that enter the Oosterschelde oyster harvesting areas. The detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in oysters destined for human consumption has implications for public health only when human pathogenic (oo)cysts that have preserved infectivity during their stay in a marine environment are present. Our data suggest that consumption of raw oysters from the Oosterschelde may occasionally lead to cases of gastro-intestinal illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franciska M Schets
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Microbiological Laboratory for Health Protection, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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Miller WA, Miller MA, Gardner IA, Atwill ER, Byrne BA, Jang S, Harris M, Ames J, Jessup D, Paradies D, Worcester K, Melli A, Conrad PA. Salmonella spp., Vibrio spp., Clostridium perfringens, and Plesiomonas shigelloides in marine and freshwater invertebrates from coastal California ecosystems. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2006; 52:198-206. [PMID: 16897302 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-006-9080-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2006] [Accepted: 04/07/2006] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The coastal ecosystems of California are highly utilized by humans and animals, but the ecology of fecal bacteria at the land-sea interface is not well understood. This study evaluated the distribution of potentially pathogenic bacteria in invertebrates from linked marine, estuarine, and freshwater ecosystems in central California. A variety of filter-feeding clams, mussels, worms, and crab tissues were selectively cultured for Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli-O157, Clostridium perfringens, Plesiomonas shigelloides, and Vibrio spp. A longitudinal study assessed environmental risk factors for detecting these bacterial species in sentinel mussel batches. Putative risk factors included mussel collection near higher risk areas for livestock or human sewage exposure, adjacent human population density, season, recent precipitation, water temperature, water type, bivalve type, and freshwater outflow exposure. Bacteria detected in invertebrates included Salmonella spp., C. perfringens, P. shigelloides, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio alginolyticus. Overall, 80% of mussel batches were culture positive for at least one of the bacterial species, although the pathogens Campylobacter, E. coli-O157, and Salmonella were not detected. Many of the same bacterial species were also cultured from upstream estuarine and riverine invertebrates. Exposure to human sewage sources, recent precipitation, and water temperature were significant risk factors for bacterial detection in sentinel mussel batches. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that filter-feeding invertebrates along the coast concentrate fecal bacteria flowing from land to sea and show that the relationships between anthropogenic effects on coastal ecosystems and the environmental niches of fecal bacteria are complex and dynamic.
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Affiliation(s)
- W A Miller
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Cacciò SM, Pozio E. Advances in the epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of cryptosporidiosis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2006; 4:429-43. [PMID: 16771620 DOI: 10.1586/14787210.4.3.429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis, the disease caused by protozoa of the genus Cryptosporidium, represents a major public health problem in both developing and developed countries. The infection can be severe and life threatening among immunocompromised individuals, particularly in AIDS patients and in those with primary immunodeficiency diseases. This review examines the essential aspects of the epidemiology of the infection, highlighting the role of animals, water and food. A critical evaluation of the diagnostic tools used in clinical settings is also provided. Lastly, the review examines the chemotherapeutic options available to treat the infection, and underlines the need to design and test new drugs. The review concludes with a five-year outlook on some aspects of interest for future research on this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone M Cacciò
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immunomediated Diseases, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy.
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Conrad PA, Miller MA, Kreuder C, James ER, Mazet J, Dabritz H, Jessup DA, Gulland F, Grigg ME. Transmission of Toxoplasma: clues from the study of sea otters as sentinels of Toxoplasma gondii flow into the marine environment. Int J Parasitol 2006; 35:1155-68. [PMID: 16157341 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2005] [Revised: 07/08/2005] [Accepted: 07/19/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii affects a wide variety of hosts including threatened southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) which serve as sentinels for the detection of the parasite's transmission into marine ecosystems. Toxoplasmosis is a major cause of mortality and contributor to the slow rate of population recovery for southern sea otters in California. An updated seroprevalence analysis showed that 52% of 305 freshly dead, beachcast sea otters and 38% of 257 live sea otters sampled along the California coast from 1998 to 2004 were infected with T. gondii. Areas with high T. gondii exposure were predominantly sandy bays near urban centres with freshwater runoff. Genotypic characterisation of 15 new T. gondii isolates obtained from otters in 2004 identified only X alleles at B1 and SAG1. A total of 38/50 or 72% of all otter isolates so far examined have been infected with a Type X strain. Type X isolates were also obtained from a Pacific harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) and California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). Molecular analysis using the C8 RAPD marker showed that the X isolates were more genetically heterogeneous than archetypal Type I, II and III genotypes of T. gondii. The origin and transmission of the Type X T. gondii genotype are not yet clear. Sea otters do not prey on known intermediate hosts for T. gondii and vertical transmission appears to play a minor role in maintaining infection in the populations. Therefore, the most likely source of infection is by infectious, environmentally resistant oocysts that are shed in the feces of felids and transported via freshwater runoff into the marine ecosystem. As nearshore predators, otters serve as sentinels of protozoal pathogen flow into the marine environment since they share the same environment and consume some of the same foods as humans. Investigation into the processes promoting T. gondii infections in sea otters will provide a better understanding of terrestrial parasite flow and the emergence of disease at the interface between wildlife, domestic animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Conrad
- Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Old Davis Road, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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